jet travel sport

Hydroflight or Flyboarding is the name known around the world for water powered jetpack sport! Water jetpacks, aka "jetski jetpacks" are an exciting new form of summer water sport, to be used together with your own jet ski. Flyboard is a the commonly known term to describe the water powered jetboard that attach to your feet. X-Jets makes the best ones in the world! We manufacture incredible water jetpacks for beginners to advanced users and the top world professional competitors. Looking to buy a water jetpack or looking to blast up from your aging plastic Flyboard? You have arrived at the right place! X·Jets Hydroflight Systems offer a complete range of jetboards, jetpacks and hydroflight power conversion kits for your jet ski. We make our all of our water jetpacks technically superior to our toy based competition. Water powered jetpacks and jetboards are the best way to spend summer days on the water with your friends and family. We love to design, we test and refine the designs of the water jetpacks and jetboards. Then we manufacture in out own factory, we deliver via Fedex and DHL express shipping, and you get to fly. We have stock of the hydroflight gear and are ready to get you flying in the summer of 2023! Contact us today to get you flying!

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• Expert hydroflight! This is the most highly responsive, lightest, lowest profile board on the market today!
• Lowest binding height over nozzle rotation axis. 52.5 millimeters.
• Constructed of 100% carbon components and CNC alloy bearing races and flanges. Hardened smooth metal bearing races and hard Delrin balls give you instant turning response.
• 94A durometer, elastomeric binding plate mounts allow slight inward flex of the bindings during tricks.
• 8mm 100% carbon fiber plates in three built-in stance widths.  42, 46, and 50 CM binding center to center.
• Over bridged inner binding mounting allows lowest to axis binding mount and retains full stance width tuning.
• 4.55 Kilos, the lightest weight, highest spec hydro jetboard in the world.
• Lightweight means faster reactions with less swing weight slowing you down,
• Compact, minimal, high tech, no extraneous styling.  We minimize the side-to-side width dimension to provide you with the most clearance and room to maneuver, and clearance in tight situations.
• The ultimate performance hydro jetboard, low, narrow, light.  Scorpion Jetblade.

Scorpion Ninja Jetblade

Full Carbon Fiber flight machine, lowest profile mounting, precision pro-flier equipment.

Jetpack NX €2500

The original sport water jetpack, full flotation design with stand included. ( *Price for Jetpack only)

Scorpion Hybrid Jetblade

Performance combo, carbon fiber flight chassis, and tempered alloy plates. Aerial flight mastery in three colorways.

Scorpion Tandem

Imagine you are flying over the surface of the water in your own water-powered jetpack or jetboard! You have full mobility three-dimensional freedom of movement, soaring as in your dreams! Falling to earth is a rush and a splash in the water, popping back up with a laugh, ready to fly again in an instant!  We build the gear that shapes experiences for friends and family to remember for a lifetime. X-Jets combines design, engineering, safety and most of all, performance.

X·Jets is active in 2023 building the hydroflight base in equipment, and systems.  Hydroflight is an activity for the whole family to enjoy, and when you are ready to step it up to the next level, X·Jets has the gear that gets you flying higher!  Contact us today and let us help you get airborne!

PWC, personal watercraft do you own a SeaDoo, Yamaha, or Kawasaki? Looking to step it up a level and experience hydroflight and flyboarding and soar above it all? Our adapter kits turn your PWC into a hydroflight powerplant and get you soaring. X-Jets water jetpack models and revolutionary Jetblades are the winners in the hydroflight vs flyboarding battles! Have you outgrown your toys? Take your hydroflight gear to another level. Shipping direct to most destinations via Fed-Ex or DHL or available through our dealer network.

• Sports & Outdoors
• Water Sports
• Diving & Snorkeling
• Diving Fins

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Scubapro GO Sport Diving Fins

About this item

• Scuba “boot-fit” design features a replaceable, self-adjusting bungee heel strap that slips easily over boots, ideal for divers who frequently negotiate rocky shore entries.
• The fins' Ultra-strong 100% M construction won't delaminate, break, or tear even after years of use, making it ideal for long-term, heavy-duty use.
• Performance features like a 25-degree pre-angled blade and power bars on the underside of the rail make the fins fast, powerful, stable, and maneuverable with minimal effort.
• Bring the fins to your favorite tropical waters with its compact, lightweight design, which easily fits in a it a carry-on compliant luggage.
• Driven to constantly innovate and improve the diving experience, Scuba builds high-quality equipment for the work, sport, and lifestyle of people whose passion is found below the surface.

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PRODUCT CERTIFICATION (1)

Carbonfree Certified determine the carbon footprint of the product, and associated carbon emissions are offset with reduction projects.

From the manufacturer

GO Sport Fins

Lightweight, comfortable, durable, and a fast and nimble performer, SCUBAPRO's GO Sport fins are ideal for both globe-trekking divers and snorkelers.

Offering a “Boot-Fit” design with a revised Ergo3 foot pocket, the GO Sport is ideal for divers who want the kicking performance of the GO fin but prefer wearing boots. The blade features mounting points to attach optional skegs that minimize sideslip and maximize stability (multiple colors available; sold separately).

GO Sport Fins are made from ultra-strong, moldable Monprene, enabling them to stand up to long-term, heavy-duty use and avoid problems of delamination, broken blades, and torn foot pockets.

Key Technical Specs

• Fine Type: Open Heel
• Material: Monprene
• Heel Strap Type: Marine-Grade Bungee
• Activity: Recreational

Product Description

Lightweight yet virtually indestructible, SCUBAPRO's Go Sport Fin is a fast and nimble performer in the water. SCUBAPRO's “boot-fit” design features a replaceable, self-adjusting bungee heel strap that slips easily over boots, ideal for divers who frequently negotiate rocky shore entries. The fins' ultra-strong 100% Monprene construction won't delaminate, break, or tear even after years of use, making it ideal for long-term, heavy-duty use. Performance features like a 25-degree pre-angled blade and power bars on the underside of the rail make the fins fast, powerful, stable, and maneuverable with minimal effort. Bring the fins to your favorite tropical waters with its compact, lightweight design, which easily fits in AITA carry-on compliant luggage. Driven to constantly innovate and improve the diving experience, SCUBAPRO builds high-quality equipment for the work, sport, and lifestyle of people whose passion is found below the surface. Mix and match equipment with a variety of colors; weighs roughly 2.5 pounds (pair); one-year warranty.

Product information

Technical details, additional information, looking for specific info, customer reviews.

Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.

To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness.

Customers say

Customers like the weight, quality, comfort, and power of the swim fin. For example, they mention it's a great lightweight fin for travel, does exceptionally well in all conditions, and provides great propulsion. That said, some disagree on size.

AI-generated from the text of customer reviews

Customers are satisfied with the quality of the swim fins. They mention that they perform well in all conditions, including strong currents. Some say that the fins are better than most dive fins and that they never had an issue with them.

"...They work equally well with flutter kicks as frog kicks and I find even though they are a little less powerful than some of my longer, stiffer fins..." Read more

"Used 3 times snorkelling and for a 3 dive trip. They work great and fit in my bag for travelling...." Read more

"...( no signs of wear after multiple rocky shore dives), and great for travel." Read more

"...big they are, the heel strap is not particularly tight, but it still holds well and I have not had it slip at all." Read more

Customers find the swim fins lightweight and compact. They say they are easy to pack and hold up well in heavy currents. Some customers also mention that the quick release springs are a godsend. Overall, customers are happy with the weight and functionality of the fins.

"...These fins are amazingly comfortable and lightweight , with SLIGHTLY positive buoyancy characteristics...." Read more

"...They work great and fit in my bag for travelling ...." Read more

"...burly (no signs of wear after multiple rocky shore dives), and great for travel ." Read more

"I bought these for traveling and love that they fit in my carryon ...." Read more

Customers find the swim fin very comfortable. They say the toes are open, so there is no constriction. They also say the boots fit snugly enough that there is not bouncing. Customers also say it is easier to maneuver in tight spaces and overhead environments.

"...compact blade the Scubapro GO SPORT provides as it is easier to maneuver in tighter spaces and overhead environments, and the power difference that..." Read more

"...Seriously, they give great propulsion, are super comfortable (the toes are open, so no constriction), come in great colors lol, super burly..." Read more

"...was a bit scary, the foot well looks massive, but my booted foot fits just snug enough that there is no bouncing around inside them when I swim...." Read more

"...They are the prefect mix of power and size. Very comfortable and stable. They're very light and strong...." Read more

Customers like the power of the swim fin. They say it has ample power and maneuverability, providing great propulsion. Customers also say it's a perfect mix of power and size, and are happy with its performance for flutter, frog, and back kicking.

"...Seriously, they give great propulsion , are super comfortable (the toes are open, so no constriction), come in great colors lol, super burly..." Read more

"These fins impressed me so much! They are the prefect mix of power and size . Very comfortable and stable. They're very light and strong...." Read more

"...I feel I have plenty of power but with comfort . I wear a size 10 shoe and wear SCUBAPRO heavy duty boots...." Read more

"...are a couple of inches shorter than the Mares but power is great with frog and flutter kicks , good control especially in confined silty areas, and..." Read more

Customers find the swim fins easy to use. They say the bungee system makes them easy to don and doff. They also say the heel bungy is comfortable and better than typical straps. Customers also say that the fins hold up well in heavy currents, and are less fatiguing. They mention the size is perfect for travel, and kicking feels powerful and fast.

"...The bungee strap heel is very easy to use and comfortable, far better than the typical straps like goggles use...." Read more

"Shorter, lighter, quicker to put on or take off than my cressi pro light fins...." Read more

"These fins blow away my Mares Quattro's for comfort. They are way less fatiguing . They feel like a natural extension to my legs...." Read more

"...especially in confined silty areas, and they're comfortable and easy to don ...." Read more

Customers are mixed about the size of the swim fin. Some mention that it's comfortable and powerful, while others say that the size chart is not accurate and the foot box is big.

" Shorter , lighter, quicker to put on or take off than my cressi pro light fins...." Read more

"...an M. Looking at them when they arrived was a bit scary, the foot well looks massive , but my booted foot fits just snug enough that there is no..." Read more

"These are a good travel fin, shorter than regular dive fins and are light weight...." Read more

"...I probably could have sized down. Foot box is big , you need to wear booties which I wanted due to lava beach entry. Love the bungee straps!" Read more

Customers are dissatisfied with the value of the swim fins. They mention that it's very expensive, not worth the money, and is made of hard, cheap, inflexible plastic.

"...Great quality and fitment. They are expensive but you get what you pay for." Read more

"...He said they worked well and would probably use them from now on. Very expensive though, if we were in season, we would have looked elsewhere..." Read more

"These fins are made of a hard, cheap , inflexable plastic that would have caused serious blisters had I been able to wear them...." Read more

" Not worth the money ..." Read more

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Winter is here! Check out the winter wonderlands at these 5 amazing winter destinations in Montana

• Travel Guide

Jet Skiing: An Adventurous Water Sport

Published: November 28, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Maisey Esparza

• Plan Your Trip

Introduction

Jet skiing is an exhilarating and adventurous water sport that has gained popularity around the world. It offers a unique blend of speed, agility, and adrenaline-pumping excitement, making it a favorite activity for thrill-seekers and water enthusiasts alike.

Unlike traditional water sports that require boarding a boat or relying on the wind, jet skiing allows individuals to take control and navigate the water on their own. With the power of a personal watercraft, riders can experience the thrill of gliding across the water’s surface at high speeds, performing impressive maneuvers, and enjoying the freedom of the open water.

The popularity of jet skiing can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, it provides a thrilling experience that appeals to people of all ages and skill levels. Whether you’re an adrenaline junkie looking for an adventure or a beginner seeking a unique water sport experience, jet skiing offers something for everyone.

Additionally, jet skiing allows individuals to explore various water environments, from lakes and rivers to oceans and coastlines. This versatility adds to the allure of the sport, as it provides a chance to discover new destinations and enjoy breathtaking views from a different perspective.

Moreover, jet skiing is often considered a social activity, as it can be enjoyed individually or in groups. Many adventure enthusiasts and vacationers choose to rent jet skis and head out together, creating lasting memories and enjoying friendly competitions on the water.

Whether you’re looking to experience the thrill of riding a personal watercraft for the first time or seeking new jet skiing destinations to explore, this comprehensive guide will provide you with all the information you need to embark on your jet skiing adventure.

History of Jet Skiing

Jet skiing, also known as personal watercraft (PWC) riding, has a fascinating history that traces back to the 1960s. It was invented by Clayton Jacobsen II, a California-born engineer and entrepreneur.

In 1968, Jacobsen developed the first Jet Ski prototype, which he called the “Wetbike.” This innovative watercraft featured a handlebar steering system and a small engine. Although it gained attention for its unique design and capabilities, it would take a few more years for Jet Skiing to truly take off as a popular water sport.

It wasn’t until the 1970s that Kawasaki, a Japanese motorcycle manufacturer, recognized the potential of Jet Skiing and began producing their own PWCs. In 1973, they introduced the first commercially available Jet Ski, known as the Kawasaki Jet Ski. This groundbreaking invention propelled the sport into the mainstream and laid the foundation for the modern-day Jet Skiing we know today.

Over the years, Jet Ski technology has continued to evolve and improve. The early models were relatively simple, with limited speed and maneuverability. However, advancements in engine power and hull design have made modern Jet Skis more agile, faster, and capable of performing impressive stunts and maneuvers.

Jet Skiing gained massive popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, thanks to its inclusion in action movies and promotion as an extreme water sport. Riders began pushing the boundaries, experimenting with new tricks and participating in competitive events.

Today, Jet Ski manufacturers like Yamaha, Sea-Doo, and Kawasaki produce a wide range of models, catering to different riding styles and skill levels. From recreational PWCs with comfortable seating to high-performance machines designed for racing, there is a Jet Ski for every enthusiast.

Jet Skiing has also spawned various offshoots and disciplines, such as freestyle Jet Skiing, where riders perform acrobatic tricks and jumps, and endurance racing, where participants compete in long-distance challenges.

With its rich history and continuous innovations, Jet Skiing has firmly established itself as a beloved water sport, offering endless excitement and thrills for adventure seekers across the globe.

Types of Jet Skis

When it comes to Jet Skis, there are several different types available, each tailored to specific preferences and riding styles. Whether you’re a beginner looking for stability and ease of use or an experienced rider seeking high performance and speed, there’s a Jet Ski model to suit your needs. Here are some of the common types:

• Recreational Jet Skis: These Jet Skis are perfect for beginners and casual riders. They are designed with stability and ease of use in mind, providing a comfortable and relaxing experience on the water. Recreational Jet Skis are often equipped with features like adjustable handlebars, multiple riding modes, and plenty of storage space for personal belongings.
• Performance Jet Skis: If you crave speed and agility, performance Jet Skis are the way to go. These models are built for adrenaline junkies who enjoy pushing their limits on the water. With powerful engines, lightweight designs, and advanced hull technology, performance Jet Skis can reach impressive speeds and offer responsive handling for quick maneuvers.
• Touring Jet Skis: Touring Jet Skis are ideal for those who want to explore longer distances without sacrificing comfort. These models are equipped with features like spacious seating, ample storage compartments, and a smoother ride, making them perfect for extended trips on the water. They often have larger fuel tanks to ensure you can enjoy longer rides without worrying about running out of fuel.
• Stand-Up Jet Skis: Stand-up Jet Skis, also known as “stand-up personal watercraft,” are designed for riders seeking a more intense and physically demanding experience. These models do not have a seat, requiring riders to stand upright while maneuvering the watercraft. Stand-up Jet Skis are known for their agility, allowing riders to perform tricks and jumps on the water.
• Fishing Jet Skis: For those who enjoy combining Jet Skiing with their love for fishing, fishing Jet Skis are the perfect option. These models are equipped with features like fishing rod holders, tackle storage, and even fish finders to enhance your fishing experience. The added stability and durability make them suitable for navigating in different water conditions.

When choosing a Jet Ski, it’s essential to consider your skill level, intended use, and personal preferences. Renting or test riding different types of Jet Skis can help you determine which one suits you best. Remember to always prioritize safety and follow any local regulations when operating a Jet Ski.

Jet Skiing Equipment and Gear

When engaging in the thrilling water sport of jet skiing, it’s essential to prioritize safety by wearing the appropriate equipment and gear. Here are the essential items you should have before hitting the water:

• Life Jacket: A properly fitted and U.S. Coast Guard-approved life jacket is the most critical piece of equipment when jet skiing. It is designed to keep you afloat in case of an emergency and ensure your safety, especially in rough waters. Choose a life jacket that is suitable for your weight and provides excellent buoyancy.
• Wetsuit or Swimwear: The choice between a wetsuit and swimwear will depend on the water temperature. In colder conditions, a wetsuit can provide insulation and protection against the elements. On the other hand, in warmer climates, swimwear may be more comfortable and practical.
• Waterproof Phone Case: To protect your phone from water damage, it’s advisable to invest in a waterproof phone case. This will allow you to carry your phone safely and access it when needed for communication or capturing memorable moments.
• Protective Eyewear: Wearing sunglasses or goggles with UV protection is crucial to shield your eyes from the sun’s glare and potential debris in the water. It will also enhance visibility, allowing you to navigate the water with ease.
• Gloves: Jet skiing can be physically demanding, especially when gripping the handlebars for extended periods. Wearing gloves can protect your hands from blisters and provide a better grip on the handlebars, enhancing control and maneuverability.
• Footwear: It’s essential to wear proper footwear that will protect your feet from potential injuries and provide a firm grip on the Jet Ski. Water shoes or neoprene boots are popular choices as they are lightweight, offer traction, and can withstand water exposure.
• Helmets: While wearing a helmet is not mandatory in all areas, it is highly recommended for added protection, especially during high-speed maneuvers or in crowded waterways. A helmet with a snug fit and a full-face visor can safeguard your head from potential impacts.
• Whistle: Carrying a whistle is a simple yet effective safety measure. It can be used to alert others in case of an emergency or to communicate with fellow jet skiers or boaters in the vicinity.

Additionally, it is important to ensure that the Jet Ski itself is in good working condition, regularly serviced, and equipped with the necessary safety features, such as a kill switch and navigation lights.

Remember, safety should always be the top priority when participating in any water sport. By wearing the appropriate equipment and gear, you can enjoy a thrilling jet skiing experience while minimizing the risks.

Safety Precautions for Jet Skiing

While jet skiing is an exciting and exhilarating water sport, it’s crucial to prioritize safety to ensure a fun and accident-free experience. By following these safety precautions, you can minimize risks and enjoy your jet skiing adventure:

• Wear a Life jacket: Always wear a properly fitted and U.S. Coast Guard-approved life jacket. It will keep you safe in case of an accident or if you become separated from your Jet Ski.
• Take a Boater Safety Course: If you’re new to jet skiing or operating a personal watercraft, consider taking a boater safety course to familiarize yourself with the rules and regulations of the waterways. It will help you understand navigation, right-of-way, and safety guidelines.
• Check Local Laws and Regulations: Familiarize yourself with the laws and regulations specific to the area you’ll be jet skiing in. Ensure you understand any speed limits, restricted zones, or boating requirements to avoid any legal issues and promote safe navigation on the water.
• Maintain a Safe Distance: Keep a safe distance from other watercraft, swimmers, and objects in the water. Be cautious and aware of your surroundings to avoid collisions or accidents.
• Use a Kill Switch: Always attach the kill switch lanyard securely to your person or life jacket. This safety feature will automatically shut off the engine if you fall off the Jet Ski, preventing it from continuing to operate without control.
• Be Mindful of Weather Conditions: Pay attention to weather conditions before and during your jet skiing adventure. High winds, storms, or rough waters can pose risks, and it’s best to avoid jet skiing in these conditions.
• Do Not Drink and Ride: Just like operating a vehicle, alcohol and drugs impair judgment and reaction time. Never operate a Jet Ski under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
• Communicate with Others: Establish clear signals and communication methods with fellow jet skiers or boaters to ensure smooth navigation and avoid accidents. Use hand signals, whistles, or designated radio channels to communicate effectively.
• Watch Your Speed: Adhere to speed limits and adjust your speed according to the conditions. Excessive speed can make it harder to control the Jet Ski or react to potential hazards.
• Be Cautious while Jumping Wakes: When jumping wakes created by other boats, maintain a safe distance and approach them at a controlled speed. Always land with both hands on the handlebars to maintain control.
• Practice Self-Rescue Techniques: Learn self-rescue techniques, such as re-boarding your Jet Ski from the water, in case you fall off. This skill will help you quickly recover and avoid dangerous situations.
• Respect Wildlife and the Environment: Jet skis are powerful machines, but it’s important to respect the ecosystem and wildlife. Avoid approaching marine animals too closely and be mindful of sensitive areas such as coral reefs or protected habitats.

By following these safety precautions and using common sense, you can enjoy the exhilaration of jet skiing while ensuring the well-being of yourself, others, and the environment.

Jet Skiing Techniques and Skills

Mastering the essential techniques and skills of jet skiing is crucial for a safe and enjoyable experience on the water. Whether you’re a beginner or an experienced rider, honing these abilities will enhance your control, maneuverability, and overall enjoyment. Here are some key techniques and skills to improve your jet skiing prowess:

• Mounting and Launching: Approach the Jet Ski from the rear, ensuring it is in shallow water. Step onto the footrests, gripping the handlebars firmly, and carefully launch by pushing away from the shore.
• Proper Body Position: Maintain a balanced and athletic stance while riding. Keep your knees slightly bent and your weight centered. This will help you absorb any impact and maintain control over the Jet Ski.
• Throttle Control: Gradually increase and decrease the throttle to control your speed. Understand the sensitivity of the throttle and avoid sudden, jerky movements that can throw off your balance.
• Turning: To make a turn, shift your weight to the side you wish to turn and lean in that direction. Simultaneously, apply gentle pressure to the handlebars in the same direction to initiate the turn. Practice different turning techniques, such as wide turns or sharp turns, to enhance your maneuverability.
• Braking: Familiarize yourself with the braking system of the Jet Ski. The braking mechanism may vary depending on the model. Practice using the brakes to slow down or come to a complete stop when needed.
• Jumping Wakes: When jumping wakes created by other boats, approach them at a controlled speed. As you reach the wake, stand up slightly and use your knees as shock absorbers to absorb the impact. Keep a firm grip on the handlebars and maintain control throughout the jump.
• Emergency Stop: In case of an emergency, it is essential to know how to stop the Jet Ski quickly. Release the throttle, press the brakes firmly, and lean back to shift the weight towards the rear. This will help bring the Jet Ski to a swift stop.
• Advanced Maneuvers: As you gain confidence and experience, you can explore more advanced maneuvers such as 360-degree spins, slalom riding, and quick directional changes. These maneuvers require precise control and balance, so practice them in a safe and controlled environment.
• Handling Waves and Rough Waters: When navigating through waves or rough waters, maintain a steady speed and keep the Jet Ski’s bow slightly elevated to minimize the impact. Let the watercraft glide over the waves rather than plowing through them.
• Self-Rescue: Practice self-rescue techniques, such as re-boarding the Jet Ski from the water, in case you fall off. Familiarize yourself with the boarding steps and practice in calm water before attempting it in more challenging conditions.

Remember, always prioritize safety and gradually build your skills as you gain experience. Start with simple maneuvers and gradually progress to more advanced techniques. Practice regularly and be mindful of your surroundings to ensure a safe and enjoyable jet skiing adventure.

Jet Skiing Destinations

Jet skiing offers the opportunity to explore stunning waterways and breathtaking landscapes around the world. Here are some popular destinations for jet skiing enthusiasts:

• Florida Keys, USA: With its crystal-clear waters and vibrant marine life, the Florida Keys offer a perfect playground for jet skiing. Ride through the picturesque islands, explore hidden coves, and feel the warm tropical breeze as you skim across the turquoise waters.
• Gold Coast, Australia: The Gold Coast is renowned for its beautiful beaches and thrilling water sports. Jet ski along the coast, enjoying the iconic skyline and pristine beaches. The Broadwater and Moreton Bay Marine Park are popular areas for jet skiing, providing a mix of calm waters and open-sea adventure.
• French Riviera, France: The French Riviera, with its glamorous resorts and stunning coastline, offers a luxurious and picturesque jet skiing experience. Ride along the sparkling Mediterranean waters, passing by beautiful seaside towns and iconic landmarks like Cannes and Saint-Tropez.
• Cancun, Mexico: Jet skiing in Cancun allows you to explore the Caribbean Sea with its vibrant turquoise waters and rich marine life. Glide past white sandy beaches, snorkel in dazzling coral reefs, and experience the thrill of riding in the clear tropical waters.
• The Whitsundays, Australia: Located in the heart of the Great Barrier Reef, the Whitsundays is a collection of stunning islands surrounded by azure waters. Jet ski through the Whitsunday Islands, visiting iconic spots like Whitehaven Beach and Hill Inlet for a truly tropical and unique adventure.
• Nassau, Bahamas: The Bahamas is a paradise for water sports enthusiasts, and Nassau offers an ideal setting for jet skiing. Explore the pristine waters, visit secluded cays, and discover the vibrant underwater world. The famous Blue Lagoon Island is a favorite jet skiing destination in Nassau.
• Phuket, Thailand: Jet skiing in Phuket allows you to experience the beauty of Thailand’s stunning Andaman Sea. Discover hidden lagoons, explore limestone cliffs, and visit nearby islands like Phi Phi Island and James Bond Island for an unforgettable jet skiing adventure.
• The Greek Islands, Greece: With their crystal-clear turquoise waters and picturesque landscapes, the Greek Islands provide a magical backdrop for jet skiing. Explore the Cyclades or Ionian Islands, discover hidden coves, and witness ancient ruins along the coast as you cruise through the Aegean Sea.
• Dubai, United Arab Emirates: Jet skiing in Dubai offers a unique blend of modernity and adventure. Ride along the iconic Dubai Marina, enjoy the stunning views of the city’s skyline, and venture into the open waters of the Arabian Gulf for a thrilling and luxurious jet skiing experience.
• Lake Tahoe, USA: Located on the border of California and Nevada, Lake Tahoe is known for its pristine waters surrounded by majestic mountains. Jet ski on the lake’s crystal-clear waters, explore hidden coves, and witness the breathtaking beauty of one of the country’s most iconic alpine lakes.

These destinations offer not only fantastic jet skiing experiences but also an opportunity to explore the local culture, cuisine, and natural wonders. Always remember to check local regulations, rent from reputable providers, and respect the environment to ensure a responsible and enjoyable jet skiing adventure.

Jet Skiing Competitions and Events

Jet skiing has evolved into a competitive sport with a variety of thrilling competitions and events that attract professional riders and enthusiasts from around the world. These events showcase the skill, speed, and daring maneuvers of jet ski athletes. Here are some notable jet skiing competitions and events:

• Jet Ski World Championship: The Jet Ski World Championship is one of the most prestigious and highly anticipated events in the jet ski racing world. Organized by the International Jet Sports Boating Association (IJSBA), it brings together top riders from different countries to compete in various categories such as freestyle, slalom, and endurance races.
• Pro Watercross Tour: The Pro Watercross Tour is a prominent professional jet ski racing series held across different locations in the United States. This tour attracts top riders who display their skills in intense races, including closed-course racing and freestyle competitions.
• X Games Jet Ski Freestyle: The X Games, known for showcasing extreme sports, features a Jet Ski Freestyle competition. Riders perform awe-inspiring tricks, flips, and aerial maneuvers in an adrenaline-fueled display of athleticism and daring stunts.
• AquaX World Championship: AquaX is a high-intensity jet ski racing series that takes place in multiple locations, including the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. The AquaX World Championship brings together the best riders from each region to compete for the world title in challenging offshore races.
• Jetsurf World Series: While not strictly jet skiing, the Jetsurf World Series is an exciting event that combines the thrill of surfing and jet propulsion. Riders compete on motorized surfboards, showcasing their skills in wave-riding, slalom races, and aerial maneuvers.
• Jettribe Best of the West Series: The Jettribe Best of the West Series is a popular jet ski racing event held across various locations on the West Coast of the United States. It features a range of racing classes, from novice to expert, attracting riders of all skill levels.
• Red Bull Fuerteventura Jet Ski Marathon: This unique event takes place in the Canary Islands and challenges riders to navigate a grueling marathon course using their jet skis. The demanding race tests endurance, skill, and strategy as competitors battle the open ocean elements.
• Jet Ski Freeride Tour: The Jet Ski Freeride Tour is an adrenaline-packed event that showcases the skill and creativity of freestyle jet ski riders. These riders perform gravity-defying tricks, flips, and spins, delighting spectators with their daring maneuvers and aerial displays.
• Jet Ski Drag Racing: Jet ski drag racing events, often held at waterfront festivals or dedicated racing circuits, are thrilling spectacles that pit competitors in head-to-head, straight-line races. These events highlight the raw power and acceleration capabilities of high-performance jet skis.
• Local Jet Ski Races and Freeride Events: In addition to major competitions, local jet ski races and freeride events are held around the world. These events provide an opportunity for enthusiasts of all levels to showcase their skills, connect with fellow riders, and enjoy the exciting atmosphere of jet ski racing.

Attending or participating in these jet skiing competitions and events is a fantastic way to experience the adrenaline, skill, and camaraderie of the jet ski community. Whether you’re a competitor or a spectator, these events offer an electrifying showcase of the sport’s athleticism and spectacle.

Health Benefits of Jet Skiing

Jet skiing not only offers an exhilarating and fun-filled adventure but also provides several health benefits for riders. Engaging in this water sport can contribute to both physical fitness and mental well-being. Here are some of the health benefits associated with jet skiing:

• Cardiovascular Fitness: Jet skiing is a physically demanding activity that engages multiple muscle groups and increases heart rate. Riding a Jet Ski requires balance, core strength, and constant maneuvering, which promotes cardiovascular endurance and helps improve overall fitness.
• Muscle Strength and Toning: The dynamic nature of jet skiing engages muscles throughout the body, particularly the core, legs, arms, and back. Constant steering, balance adjustments, and maneuvering against the water’s resistance contribute to muscle strength, endurance, and toning.
• Improved Balance and Coordination: Jet skiing challenges balance and coordination as riders navigate the water and adjust their body position to maintain stability and control. Practicing these skills while riding strengthens balance and enhances overall coordination.
• Stress Relief: Jet skiing combines the thrill of speed and the beauty of nature, providing an immersive and exhilarating experience. Being surrounded by open water and enjoying the freedom of movement can help reduce stress, release tension, and improve overall mental well-being.
• Increased Endorphin Levels: Engaging in physical activities like jet skiing prompts the release of endorphins, which are natural chemicals in the body known as “feel-good” hormones. The release of these hormones can boost mood, reduce anxiety, and enhance overall feelings of happiness and well-being.
• Enhanced Mental Focus: Riding a Jet Ski requires sharp mental focus as riders navigate through waves and react to changing water conditions. This heightened focus can enhance cognitive abilities and improve mental clarity.
• Vitamin D Absorption: Spending time outdoors on a Jet Ski allows riders to soak up the sun’s rays, leading to an increased intake of vitamin D. Active exposure to sunlight can promote healthier bones, strengthen the immune system, and contribute to overall well-being.
• Social Interaction: Jet skiing can be a social activity, especially when friends and family join in the adventure. Sharing the experience with others fosters social connections, strengthens relationships, and brings a sense of community and enjoyment.
• Improved Water Confidence: Jet skiing offers a fantastic opportunity for individuals to build water confidence and overcome any fear or apprehension of open water. The sport allows riders to develop a greater comfort level and familiarity with being in and navigating water environments.
• Outdoor Recreation: Jet skiing takes riders out into the great outdoors, allowing them to connect with nature, breathe in fresh air, and appreciate beautiful landscapes from a unique perspective. This exposure to nature and the outdoors can have a positive impact on mental health and overall well-being.

With its combination of physical exertion, exhilaration, and connection to nature, jet skiing provides a range of health benefits that contribute to a healthier, more active lifestyle. Whether you’re seeking cardiovascular fitness, stress relief, or simply a fun way to enjoy the water, jet skiing offers a thrilling adventure that can positively impact both body and mind.

Environmental Impact of Jet Skiing

While jet skiing is a thrilling and enjoyable water sport, it is important to be aware of its potential environmental impact. Jet skiing, like any motorized activity in natural environments, can have both positive and negative effects on the ecosystem. Here are some considerations regarding the environmental impact of jet skiing:

Water Pollution: Jet skis, like all motorized watercraft, produce exhaust emissions. These emissions can contribute to water pollution, particularly in densely populated waterways. To mitigate this impact, it is important to follow emission regulations and choose environmentally friendly jet ski models when possible.

Wildlife Disturbance: Jet skiing at high speeds or in sensitive habitats can disrupt wildlife, causing stress and potential harm to marine creatures such as sea birds, turtles, and marine mammals. It is crucial to maintain a safe distance from wildlife, especially in protected areas or during breeding seasons.

Erosion and Shoreline Damage: High-speed jet skiing near shorelines can contribute to erosion, leading to the degradation of beaches and fragile habitats. Practicing responsible riding and avoiding sensitive areas can help minimize this potential impact.

Noise Pollution: Jet skis can emit high levels of noise, which can disturb both wildlife and other beachgoers seeking a peaceful environment. Respecting noise regulations and being considerate of those around you can help reduce noise pollution.

Fuel Consumption and Energy Efficiency: Jet skis require fuel consumption, which contributes to carbon emissions and climate change. Choosing fuel-efficient models and avoiding excessive idling can help minimize the carbon footprint associated with jet skiing.

Garbage and Waste Management: Ensuring proper waste management is essential when engaging in jet skiing. Avoid disposing of any garbage, plastics, or harmful materials into the water or surrounding environment. Pack out what you bring and properly dispose of waste in designated areas.

Responsible Anchoring: When anchoring your jet ski, it is important to use appropriate methods that minimize damage to fragile marine ecosystems, such as seagrass beds or coral reefs. Choose anchoring spots carefully and avoid dropping anchor on sensitive marine habitats.

Adhering to Waterway Regulations: Each waterway may have specific regulations or restricted areas to protect the environment and ensure the safety of all users. Familiarize yourself with local rules and regulations, and comply with any restrictions or guidelines put in place to protect sensitive habitats or species.

Environmental Awareness and Education: Promoting environmental awareness among jet ski enthusiasts is essential. Encouraging responsible riding practices, educating others about the importance of protecting natural resources, and advocating for environmentally conscious behavior can help minimize the overall impact of jet skiing on the environment.

By being mindful of the potential environmental impact and adopting responsible practices, jet skiing can be enjoyed in a way that respects and preserves our precious natural surroundings. Being an environmentally conscious jet skier ensures that future generations can continue to experience the thrill of this exciting water sport in harmony with the environment.

Jet skiing is an exhilarating water sport that offers a unique blend of adventure, excitement, and freedom on the open water. Whether you’re a beginner seeking a thrilling experience or an experienced rider looking to push your limits, jet skiing provides endless possibilities for fun and enjoyment.

From its humble beginnings in the 1960s to its current status as a popular sport around the world, jet skiing has evolved and captured the hearts of water enthusiasts everywhere. Its versatility allows riders to explore various water environments, from serene lakes to vast oceans, showcasing the beauty of nature from a different perspective.

Mastering the techniques and skills of jet skiing is essential for a safe and enjoyable experience. From mounting and launching the Jet Ski to executing turns and advanced maneuvers, honing these skills allows riders to navigate the water with confidence, control, and precision.

Jet skiing also offers numerous health benefits, from improved cardiovascular fitness and muscle strength to stress relief and enhanced mental focus. Engaging in this water sport allows individuals to connect with nature, absorb vitamin D from the sun, and enjoy the social aspects of riding with friends and family.

However, as with any activity, it is important to be aware of the environmental impact of jet skiing. Respecting marine life, following regulations, and adopting responsible practices can ensure that the sport is enjoyed in a sustainable way, protecting the ecosystems and natural beauty of our waterways for future generations.

Whether you’re exploring popular destinations like the Florida Keys or the French Riviera, attending thrilling competitions, or embarking on your own jet skiing adventure, this exhilarating water sport provides a unique way to connect with the water and experience the thrill of speed and freedom.

So, grab your life jacket, hop on a Jet Ski, and embark on an unforgettable journey into the world of adventure and excitement that jet skiing has to offer. Whether you’re gliding across calm lakes or battling the ocean waves, the thrill and joy of jet skiing await you.

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Managing Travel Fatigue and Jet Lag in Athletes: A Review and Consensus Statement

• Consensus Statement
• Published: 14 July 2021
• Volume 51 , pages 2029–2050, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Dina C. Janse van Rensburg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1058-6992 1 , 2 ,
• Audrey Jansen van Rensburg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1749-5073 1 ,
• Peter M. Fowler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5853-9119 3 ,
• Amy M. Bender   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4086-2882 4 ,
• David Stevens   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8412-2202 5 , 6 ,
• Kieran O. Sullivan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7137-3125 7 , 8 ,
• Hugh H. K. Fullagar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9426-5373 9 ,
• Juan-Manuel Alonso   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1350-8746 10 ,
• Michelle Biggins   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3064-1867 7 ,
• Amanda Claassen-Smithers   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6277-1378 11 ,
• Rob Collins 12 , 13 ,
• Michiko Dohi 14 ,
• Matthew W. Driller   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9990-8830 15 ,
• Ian C. Dunican   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4000-8213 16 ,
• Luke Gupta 17 ,
• Shona L. Halson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1047-3878 18 ,
• Michele Lastella   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1793-3811 19 ,
• Kathleen H. Miles   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9811-816X 20 ,
• Mathieu Nedelec   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8095-9163 21 ,
• Tony Page 22 ,
• Greg Roach 19 ,
• Charli Sargent   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5340-4701 19 ,
• Meeta Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6058-1511 23 ,
• Grace E. Vincent   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7036-7823 19 ,
• Jacopo A. Vitale   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7537-079X 24 &
• Tanita Botha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8861-4466 25  

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Athletes are increasingly required to travel domestically and internationally, often resulting in travel fatigue and jet lag. Despite considerable agreement that travel fatigue and jet lag can be a real and impactful issue for athletes regarding performance and risk of illness and injury, evidence on optimal assessment and management is lacking. Therefore 26 researchers and/or clinicians with knowledge in travel fatigue, jet lag and sleep in the sports setting, formed an expert panel to formalise a review and consensus document. This manuscript includes definitions of terminology commonly used in the field of circadian physiology, outlines basic information on the human circadian system and how it is affected by time-givers, discusses the causes and consequences of travel fatigue and jet lag, and provides consensus on recommendations for managing travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes. The lack of evidence restricts the strength of recommendations that are possible but the consensus group identified the fundamental principles and interventions to consider for both the assessment and management of travel fatigue and jet lag. These are summarised in travel toolboxes including strategies for pre-flight, during flight and post-flight. The consensus group also outlined specific steps to advance theory and practice in these areas.

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1 Introduction

The modern-day athlete is often required to travel domestically and internationally including high-frequency short distances (< 3 h) and low-frequency long distances (> 3 h) that may involve the crossing of numerous time zones. The subsequent travel fatigue and jet lag experienced result in a myriad of shared symptoms, such as daytime fatigue, decreased concentration and alertness, sleep disruption and gastrointestinal disturbances [ 1 , 2 ]. These can lead to increased illness and injury risk as well as adverse effects on athletic performance [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

Travel fatigue and jet lag are two distinct entities that may co-occur when travelling east or west across three or more time zones [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Travel fatigue occurs in all travelling athletes and can be acute following any individual long journey, or chronic (cumulative) as a consequence of repetitive travel within a season [ 4 , 10 ]. It is a multi-domain disturbance that generally occurs with any travel regardless of the direction of travel or the number of time-zones crossed [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 13 ]. It is caused by the demands of travel itself, such as cramped conditions, prolonged mild hypoxia, changes in the external environment (trans-latitudinal travel i.e. winter–summer/summer–winter) and reduced physical activity [ 10 ]. Jet lag is episodic with similar but more severe and prolonged symptoms compared to travel fatigue and follows rapid travel across 3 or more time-zones (transmeridian travel i.e. east–west/west–east) [ 4 , 10 ]. It is typically characterised by the desynchronisation between the internal human circadian system and the time at the new destination [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 11 , 14 ]. As a result, the circadian rhythm of several psychological, physiological and behavioural variables with a typical early morning nadir and late-afternoon peak is misaligned with the new local time. Depending on the training or competition time, this could directly affect athletic performance [ 2 , 4 , 5 ].

Although the circadian system is well understood and described in the circadian physiology literature [ 5 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ], it remains difficult to translate and to apply this knowledge to travel management practice within sport. Research in this area is complex due to factors, such as inter-individual differences and the challenge of measuring the circadian phase in field studies, using markers, such as core body temperature (CBT) and melatonin. A recent systematic review on the management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes concluded that no evidence exists for specific travel fatigue interventions and that evidence for interventions targeting jet lag is of low quality [ 20 ].

Since evidence-based data underpinning travel fatigue and jet lag management are under-developed [ 3 , 21 ], an expert panel was formed to define criteria from existing recommendations [ 22 , 23 ], and to inform sport science and medicine practitioners and sport programme managers on current consensus-based recommendations from a practice-led perspective [ 24 ]. This paper aims to define the terminology commonly used in the field of circadian physiology; provide basic information on the human circadian system and how it is affected by time-givers ( zeitgebers ); discuss the causes and consequences of travel fatigue and jet lag; and provide consensus recommendations on managing travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes .

Our methodology is based on a recent publication, recommending specific criteria to reach consensus [ 23 ]. A lead group of three authors (CJvR, AJvR, PF) initially discussed the writing of a consensus document. A further 23 experienced researchers and clinical practitioners in the fields of travel fatigue, jet lag and sleep in the sports setting were invited to participate on the expert panel to formalise a consensus document and recommendations. The average experience of the authors in this field ranged from 4 to 25 years. The group consisted of 14 males and 12 females and embodied global representation from 11 different countries. Their expertise included 18 scientists (including sleep and circadian physiologists, sport scientists, a nutritionist and a statistician) and 8 medical team practitioners (medical doctors and physical therapists). The authors conducted comprehensive literature searches in PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Google Scholar, and SPORTDiscus to obtain relevant peer-reviewed publications regarding the human circadian system and the management of travel fatigue and/or jet lag. Two authors (CJvR, AJvR) compiled the first draft and sent it for initial comments by the full author group. The reviewed draft consisted of sections on terminology, the circadian system, travel fatigue and jet lag. According to preference, the authors chose primary working clusters from the four sections. Eight total Qualtrics surveys were sent for those sections where recommendations are provided, i.e. list of terminology (3), management options for travel fatigue (2) and management options for jet lag (3). A statistician (TC) analysed all feedback collected in the 8 surveys. To govern the threshold of agreement, only the statistician had access to the feedback provided by the authors.

The terminology group (AB, ID, TC) listed terms included in this consensus document that are commonly used to describe the human circadian system. The group provided three definitions for each term and administered a Qualtrics survey to systematically combine expert opinions and arrive at an informed group consensus on the selected terms. After the first round, a threshold of 80% agreement [ 23 ] was reached on the definitions of the following terms: biological night, chronobiotic, chronotype, circadian rhythm, jet lag, phase shift, phase response curve, re-entrainment, and suprachiasmatic nucleus. For the next round, the rest of the terms were included: body clock, core body temperature minimum (CBTmin), dim light melatonin onset (DLMO), internal desynchrony, melatonin, nadir, phase, process C, process S, retino-hypothalamic pathway, sedative (hypnotic), and zeitgebers (time-givers). For these terms, definitions with the least votes were excluded and the remaining two definitions were adapted according to comments suggested by the authors. In the 3rd round, the senior author group (CJvR, AJvR, PF) based consensus on the majority vote since authors could not agree on phrasing the definition of terms. Further comments from all authors were applied to reach the final definition for each term.

The circadian system group (DS, MD) summarised and documented relevant literature on the physiological, psychological and behavioural variables of the human circadian system. They focussed on the relevance to translate theory into practice.

The travel fatigue group (KoS, ACS, JV, KM, MB, ML, MN, SH) summarised current literature regarding the causes and consequences of travel fatigue. This group also listed potential management options based on available literature including current opinions, expert recommendations and research-based studies (laboratory and field) on the management of travel fatigue. All authors voted on the inclusion or exclusion of each management option. Consensus was reached after the 2nd Qualtrics survey. A threshold of 80% agreement [ 23 ] was used to indicate a consensus among the authors. The average response rate by the author group to reach consensus was 96.2%.

The jet lag group (HF, ACS, CS, GV, GR, JMA, LG, MS, MDo, RC, TP) summarised current literature regarding the causes and consequences of jet lag. This group listed potential management options based on available literature including current opinions, expert recommendations as well as research-based studies (laboratory and field) on the management of jet lag. All authors voted on the inclusion or exclusion of each management option using a Qualtrics survey. After three rounds of Qualtrics surveys, consensus was reached. A threshold of 75% agreement [ 23 ] to each survey was used to indicate consensus among the authors. The average response rate by the author group to reach consensus was 92.3%.

Each sub-group within the consensus group provided sections on their relevant topics to form a second draft. The lead group (CJvR, AJvR, PF) reviewed and collated the different sections into a third draft. The author group collectively revised this third draft. Extensive discussions by all members of the consensus group followed, and all authors provided comments and suggestions. The lead group accepted or declined all responses within reason and sent the 4th draft for another round of input from the author group. Subsequently, all authors of the consensus group reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

3 Terminology

Terminology in the field of circadian physiology is complex. The following detailed explanations in Table 1 were developed by consensus and is an overview of specific terms and phrases commonly used when (a) referring to the human circadian system, or (b) when practitioners are contributing to travel planning and intervention design.

Although well described in the literature of circadian physiology, the information on the human circadian system is very detailed and beyond the scope of time-poor practitioners. The section below provides relevant information to aid practitioners to translate and apply circadian physiology into practical travel management.

4 Circadian System

The circadian system regulates the diurnal cyclical rhythms exhibited by physiological, psychological, and behavioural processes of the body over approximately 24 h [ 35 , 36 ]. This system is regulated by a central “master clock”, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), as well as peripheral clocks located in almost every cell of the body [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. These are synchronised by a sophisticated system of neuronal, hormonal and autonomous signalling [ 13 ]. Output signals from the clocks are subsequently generated, influencing physiological, psychological and behavioural processes [ 15 ]. The master and peripheral clocks of the circadian system synchronise through zeitgebers or time-givers [ 37 ].

4.1 Time-Givers/ Zeitgebers

Common time-givers are light, sleep–wake transition, physical activity, social cues and meals [ 38 , 39 ]. Light is arguably the most critical time-giver, as photic stimuli, via the retino-hypothalamic pathway, stimulates or inhibits the SCN [ 13 , 15 , 16 , 18 ]. The timing, intensity, duration and spectral composition of light appear to be the most critical factors in altering the timing of the circadian system [ 13 , 27 ] (Fig.  1 ).

Schematic diagram of the circadian clock entrainment pathways. Light directly entrains the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), whereas other non-photic zeitgebers exhibit rhythmic changes and entrain the SCN and peripheral clocks throughout 24 h—adapted with permission from Buttgereit et al. [ 40 ] and Hood and Amir [ 41 ]

4.2 Phase Markers

Key players in successful circadian re-alignment are the phase markers melatonin and CBTmin. Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that aids in the process to consolidate sleep. The onset of secretion under dim light conditions, termed dim light melatonin onset (DLMO), occurs ~ 2 h before habitual bedtime and aligns with the start of the biological night [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. The circadian rhythm of CBT oscillates ~ 0.8–1.0 °C between a night-time minimum and a daytime maximum in a rhythmic 24-h pattern [ 42 , 43 ], with CBTmin typically occurring between 03:00 and 07:00 [ 44 , 45 ].

4.3 Sleep Regulation

When CBT is at its lowest or is falling rapidly, it is easier to initiate sleep, whereas it is difficult to sleep when CBT is high or rising rapidly [ 2 , 46 ]. Internal physiological changes that occur due to the circadian system also play an important role in initiating sleep. As sleep homeostasis/sleep pressure commonly referred to as Process S, accumulates with increasing waking hours of sleep, circadian-induced secretion of melatonin along with reductions in CBT and blood pressure, known as Process C allows a person to sleep [ 32 ]. Misalignment between these processes often leads to sleep disruption, including difficulty initiating and/or maintaining sleep [ 32 ].

4.4 Phase-Shift

Exposure to a time-giver induces a wave response and can shift the circadian system (phase-advance or phase-delay). The strength of the shift is often described using a phase response curve (PRC). Light exposure during the 0–6 h period on either side of the CBTmin is effective but 0–3 h results in maximum phase shifts [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. Although the dose–response relationship is non-linear, the wavelength (shorter blue light, 400–495 nm) and intensity of bright light (≥ 2500 lx) [ 50 , 51 ], and the duration of exposure (longer) will determine the degree to which the timing of the circadian system can be shifted [ 52 , 53 , 54 ]. The pattern of endogenous melatonin secretion is inversely related to body temperature—peak melatonin secretion occurs at the nadir of CBT (Fig.  2 ) [ 55 ]. Manipulating exposure to time-givers (Fig.  1 ) may aid in successful circadian re-alignment mitigating the effects of jet lag. Conversely, inappropriate exposure may be counter-productive and cause detrimental side effects. An example of this is evidenced by the impact of irregular exposure to bright light leading to cognitive deficits and mood alterations [ 56 ].

Normal profile of endogenous melatonin (red line) and schematic human phase response curves to light (dark blue line) and exogenous melatonin (light blue line). The y -axis on the right shows the endogenous melatonin concentration. The y -axis on the left shows the direction and relative magnitude of the phase shift following light exposure or exogenous melatonin administration at various times as presented on the x -axis. The magnitude of phase shifts will depend on the dosage used and should not be directly compared—adapted with permission from Eastman and Burgess [ 5 ] and Burgess et al. [ 57 ]

4.5 Individual Differences

Re-entrainment following a time-zone change is believed to also depend on an individual’s chronotype [ 13 , 19 , 58 ]. Hypothetically, the population consists of 3 chronotypes: morning-type- (18–30%), intermediate-type- (50–60%) and evening-type individuals (18–20%) [ 19 , 59 ]. Currently, evidence to support links between chronotype and jet lag symptoms is based on social jet lag and shift worker studies [ 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. To assist practitioners in understanding their travelling athlete, and help individualise scheduled intervention (e.g. light therapy), please refer to the advice presented online in Electronic Supplementary Material Table S1: morning-type subjects vs. evening-type subjects [ 2 , 13 , 19 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 ]. Additionally, genetic differences regarding re-entrainment are of potential interest. Specifically, within the Period ( PER ) gene family, the PER3 4 allele is associated with extreme evening-type, whereas the PER3 5 allele is associated with extreme morning-type [ 69 ].

5 The Concept and Relationship Between Travel Fatigue and Jet Lag

Travel fatigue is a multi-domain disturbance that can be either acute or cumulative due to repetitive travel over a season, regardless of the mode of transport (road, rail, plane), the travel direction or the number of time zones crossed [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 13 ]. Jet lag follows any journey rapidly crossing three or more time-zones, is episodic and implies full recovery after resynchronisation [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. The relationship between travel fatigue and jet lag is conceptualised in (Fig.  3 ) and further discussed in Sects. 6 and 7.

A proposed multifactorial model of travel fatigue and jet lag—adapted with permission from Samuels [ 4 ]. Travel fatigue (on the left) is influenced by both internal and external factors. Allowing a recovery window taking into account travel distance, travel time, travel frequency and the length of the season combined with monitoring and appropriate management will lead to the ideal outcome. Jet lag (on the right) is also influenced by external factors and less so by internal factors. Travel direction and travel distance, specifically the number of time zones crossed will affect the severity experienced by the individual. Recovery to achieve the ideal outcome relies on resynchronisation of the body clock

6 Travel Fatigue

6.1 causes and consequences.

Travel fatigue refers to exhaustion and tiredness associated with any long journey [ 4 , 70 , 71 ] following trans-latitudinal travel (north–south/south–north) or transmeridian travel. It is a complex summation of physical, physiological and psychological factors that accrue during an individual trip [ 4 , 9 ], and could accumulate over a competition season. At present, there is substantial anecdotal evidence of its prevalence [ 4 , 9 , 61 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]. There is however a lack of empirical evidence of the mechanisms underpinning travel fatigue, and how it might be prevented or its impact lessened [ 20 ]. Some commonly perceived contributors to travel fatigue are highlighted in Fig.  3 and Table 2 .

When discussing the burden of travel fatigue on athletes, there are four key factors to consider: the total distance travelled, the time of travel (am or pm), the frequency of travel, and the length of the season. This concept is also referred to as the “recovery window” and indicates the available time for recovery (Fig.  3 ). The first three factors are well-documented in some professional sports [ 83 , 86 , 87 ]. For example, the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) regular season continues over 6 months consisting of 41 home games and 41 away games often inclusive of back-to-back games [ 87 ]. Congested schedules often include large travel distances as experienced by teams within the 4 top professional leagues [i.e. the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Football League (NFL), and the NBA] in the United States entailing travel between 40,000 km (once around the world) and 80,000 km (twice around the world) per season [ 88 ].

There is limited evidence on the potential consequences of travel fatigue. Studies have assessed the acute effects of air travel without crossing time zones on performance and perceptual measures among team sports players [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Overall, under these circumstances, travel has no noticeable effect on indicators of performance (i.e. technical and tactical performance during competition; countermovement jump performance; Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test performance), but negatively influences perceptual measures (e.g. reduced alertness, motivation and mood, increased perceived stress and fatigue) [ 4 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

6.2 Assessment of Teams and Athletes

Athlete monitoring tools may help to understand both acute and chronic travel fatigue in athletes. In this respect, the creation and validation of a travel fatigue scale would improve understanding of the travelling effect [ 72 ] and should target measurement of the main symptoms of travel fatigue, namely persistent fatigue, recurrent illness, behaviour and mood changes and loss of motivation. An ideal tool should detect a significant part of travel fatigue including travel, sport, personal, social and seasonal factors and also provide scores for both individual trips and accumulative travel fatigue over a season (repeated measures design). Additionally, the coefficient of variation between different assessments of the same athlete should be small in comparison with the difference between athletes. Finally, its levels should not vary significantly in the same athletes under the same conditions at different times. As this is a highly individualised measurement, it should be used primarily to detect intra-individual changes. Travel fatigue is multifactorial and presently no single marker quantifies all these requirements. Surrogate markers for travel fatigue must include subjective ratings of sleep quality, stress/mood, fatigue, and recovery [ 89 ]. Current recommended tools include the Total Quality of Recovery Scale [ 90 ] to measure psychophysiological recovery (i.e. mood states and body signals, such as sensations of soreness or heaviness), the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes Questionnaire and the Acute Recovery Stress Scale [ 91 ], which are also practical and intelligible measures that can be used to monitor general changes in fatigue and recovery states [ 92 ]. Athletes must be thoroughly familiarised with these perceptual rating scales in order to benefit. Notably, travel fatigue-specific assessments would only be used in a scenario where jet lag is not a problem (e.g. teams competing in the UEFA European Football Championship), as there is shared symptomatology and it is difficult to separate out the fatigue caused by the travel itself. It is also important to take into account that too many different psychometric tools will add to the daily burden on athletes and may lead to superficial feedback.

6.3 Current Recommendations in the Management of Travel Fatigue

A recent systematic review reported that no research exists on interventions that specifically manage travel fatigue in athletes [ 20 ] with available studies limited to opinions and collective experience rather than original research [ 93 ]. While travel distance or duration may be the key factor in the magnitude of travel fatigue experienced, having an adequate period to recover from travel (e.g. a recovery window) to prepare for training or competition is critical [ 4 ] and should be accounted for in travel arrangements. This may be unfeasible for athletes that travel frequently. Hence, they may need to implement interventions before and during travel to reduce fatigue (e.g. protecting sleep) or to treat fatigue post-travel (e.g. utilising napping and caffeine) [ 4 , 94 ]. Following consensus, the information discussed in Table 3 was determined valuable for the management of travel fatigue.

7.1 Causes and Consequences

7.1.1 causes.

The concept of “time-zone differential” relies on the function of distance travelled, i.e. travel duration and number of time-zones crossed as well as the travel direction. It is a circadian phenomenon specifically relating to jet lag [ 4 ] (Fig.  3 ). After rapid transmeridian travel (air travel across 3 or more time-zones) or trans-latitudinal travel including crossing of three or more time zones, the circadian system cannot immediately adjust to the light–dark cycle in the new time zone. This causes internal desynchrony, between both the master and peripheral clocks [ 2 ], as well as with sleep homeostasis [ 5 , 104 ]. As a result, the circadian system remains aligned, at least initially, with the timing of the light–dark cycle in the departure time zone rather than the arrival time zone [ 105 ]. The circadian system must be re-entrained, whereby the internal clocks resynchronise with external time-givers (Fig.  2 ) [ 17 , 18 ], over several days [ 2 ]. As a rule of thumb, the duration of natural alignment is 0.5 days per time-zone crossed in a westerly direction, i.e. 2 h per day, and 1 day per time zone crossed in an easterly direction, i.e. 1 h per day [ 5 , 57 ]. Until re-entrainment is complete, the physiological and psychological systems that are regulated by the circadian system (e.g. digestion, sleep, or mood) will remain misaligned with the new local time, and depending on time of training or competition, this may impact performance [ 2 , 5 , 9 , 21 ].

7.1.2 Consequences

The most common symptoms of jet lag are gastrointestinal discomfort, daytime fatigue/sleepiness, impaired mental or physical performance and poor sleep [ 71 , 106 ]. The intensity and duration of jet lag symptoms worsen with an increasing number of time zones crossed, i.e. crossing 3–4 time zones produces milder symptoms compared to crossing 10–12 time zones [ 106 ]. The experience of jet lag is also greatly influenced by the direction of travel [ 5 ]. For example, after a westward flight over 8 time zones, athletes will feel sleepy, their performance will be impaired in the evening, and they will wake earlier than usual in the morning [ 21 ]. In contrast, after an eastward flight over 8 time zones, athletes will also feel sleepy, but their performance will be impaired in the early afternoon, they will have difficulty falling asleep at their regular bedtime, and they will sleep in later than usual [ 21 ]. Chronotype may also influence these responses as morning larks adapt better to eastward travel (easier to shift circadian rhythms earlier), whereas night owls adapt better to westward travel (easier to shift circadian rhythms later) [ 62 ].

7.2 Assessment of Teams and Athletes

Given the complexity of the disruption to the circadian system, as well as the variety of associated physiological and psychological symptoms, several assessment tools can be used to assess the different aspects of jet lag. These may include questionnaires, sleep diaries in conjunction with actigraphy and circadian-phase markers.

Of the available questionnaires, the Liverpool Jet Lag Questionnaire appears to be the most valid and reliable subjective tool [ 74 , 107 ]. This questionnaire is a visual analogue scale with 15 subjective ratings about overall perceived jet lag and its symptoms (sleep, fatigue, appetite, mental performance and bowel function), measured at different times of the day. Other tools such as the Columbian Jet Lag Scale [ 108 ] may offer suitable alternatives [ 109 ].

Actigraphy typically utilises movement-derived algorithms to provide estimates of sleep timing, duration and quality, and is commonly used in athletic settings in conjunction with sleep diaries [ 110 , 111 ]. While actigraphy can help with information regarding rest–activity and/or sleep behaviour during travel, there is minimal evidence to support its use in evaluating jet lag per se. Circadian-phase markers perhaps represent the most accurate objective measure to assess jet lag, as they examine a phase response to interventions (e.g. CBT, salivary melatonin,[ 48 , 112 ] body skin temperature) [ 13 , 113 , 114 ] but are unlikely suitable for sport due to the practicality, cost and invasiveness. If feasible, these circadian-phase markers could give insight into designing optimal jet lag interventions. A technique to indicate if sleep–wake behaviour has adapted is to measure the change in the mid-point of the sleep period between home and destination time zone, i.e. the difference in the median hours between bedtime and get-up time as assessed by actigraphy [ 60 , 115 ]. The authors suggest this as a possible alternative to measuring CBT and salivary melatonin-phase markers.

There are several online jet lag calculators and mobile applications which provide advice on the timing of interventions to theoretically help adjust to a new time-zone [ 116 , 117 , 118 ]. In the elite sport environment, these calculators and mobile applications still require validation of the scientific base used to provide this advice, i.e. how is circadian phase determined, and are the proposed interventions evidence-based [ 119 ]. The consensus group cautions against the use of these until further research examining the efficacy and effectiveness of these tools in the athlete environment has been conducted.

Choosing measures to assess jet lag depends on a range of factors, such as the intention of the measure, validity and reliability, suitability for laboratory or field testing, as well as cost, time, practicality and expertise of operation. Teams or athletes are best served to select a tool that serves their direct purpose. Further research is needed to determine appropriate assessment measures of jet lag for teams and athletes [ 20 , 120 ].

7.3 Current Recommendations in the Management of Jet Lag

Most literature refers to light, melatonin and preservation of sleep as the best options to mitigate jet lag. Considering the impact of sleep loss on performance, one of the main goals taking into account the athlete’s training and competition schedules, should be to preserve sleep. Other strategies include exercise, nutrition, melatonin analogues, sedatives and stimulants. The literature regarding recommendations on management strategies is published mainly as opinions [ 4 , 13 , 93 , 106 ], collective experience manuscripts [ 3 , 5 , 21 , 121 ], laboratory research studies on how to induce a phase shift [ 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 ] and laboratory research studies on how to recover from a phase shift [ 20 , 48 , 49 ]. Considering the literature referenced in this consensus paper, extrapolating evidence from healthy community and military populations and following the findings of a recent systematic review [ 20 ], the author group collectively summarised current recommendations based on consensus (Table 4 , Figs. 4 , 5 and 6 ).

Recommended interventions to help prevent or reduce the effect of jet lag

Combined interventions and short-term travel recommendations to help prevent or reduce the effect of jet lag

The combined use of light (exposure or avoidance), exogenous melatonin ingestion and administration of short-acting hypnotics to facilitate adaptation to phase shifts from the day of arrival. a Depicts westward travel with the first row illustrating normal home time. The next three rows illustrate travel crossing 4, 8 and 12 h time zones, respectively. Each row represents the current phase of the circadian system on the day of arrival. The CBTmin shifts by 0.5 days per time zone crossed, i.e. delays by 2 h per day and application of interventions need to be adapted according to the shifting of the CBTmin. b Depicts eastward travel with the first row illustrating normal home time. The next three rows illustrate travel crossing 4, 8 and 12 h time zones, respectively. Each row represents the current phase of the circadian system on the day of arrival. The CBTmin shifts by 1 day per time zone crossed, i.e. advances by 1 h per day and application of interventions need to be adapted according to the shifting of the CBTmin. We constructed a recommendation based on a scientific measurement (CBTmin and DLMO) that can be reasonably applied for any number of time zones crossed. Travelling > 8 h EAST, it may be preferable to adapt by delay (moving backward) instead of advance (moving forward) as the body clock adjusts to large delays more easily than to large advances). Once CBTmin at the destination occurs within the scheduled sleep period, partial adaptation is achieved, and the individual is likely to encounter less sleep disruption. Once CBTmin at the destination occurs at the same time as pre-travel (home time), complete adaptation is achieved

8 Theoretical Concepts to Guide Future Research

To address the gaps in knowledge, high-quality multi-centre research that is repeatable and reliable is required in athletes, and utilising multi-disciplinary methodology in an attempt to adopt a holistic approach [ 146 ]. Specific measurements are required [e.g. CBT, melatonin, electroencephalogram (EEG)] otherwise the “research” will continue to either be surrogate measures, opinions or collective experiences.

For travel fatigue, randomised trials and longitudinal studies are needed to compare interventions aiming to reduce travel fatigue. Cabin conditions including seat size in buses, trains and planes can contribute to travel fatigue and require more research. The impact of specific parameters related to air travel, such as the average flight altitude, and the frequency and magnitude of atmospheric pressure, changes during the flight, which affects air cabin oxygen saturation levels are also worth exploring. Additionally, information on how travel fatigue is impacted following short distance (< 3 h) vs. long distance (> 3 h) travel, as well as the direction of travel (north–south/south–north, east–west/west–east) and the frequency of travel across a season is required. From a different perspective, there may be value in qualitative research evaluating how much athletes, coaches and support staff value and use monitoring tools. Determining the specific intervention, and the reason why coaches and athletes utilise these to minimise travel fatigue is also important. This is significant considering the burden which can be associated with athlete monitoring, the role of coaches and support staff in interpreting such data, concerns about whether such data are used in a meaningful manner, and the importance of athlete psychological health in perceived fatigue [ 147 ].

Well-controlled field-based jet lag studies that examine circadian adaptation and the impact of light exposure or avoidance schedules, using an appropriate phase marker, are required. To better understand risk factors and develop at-risk profiles for suitable interventions aligned to these profiles, tools to predict jet lag symptom severity and chronicity in individual travelling athletes need to be developed. Multi-centre studies exploring travel across a season, in competitions that involve frequent transmeridian travel (e.g. World Rugby 7 Series) rather than just assessing the impact of once-off travel will be valuable. Polysomnography (PSG) baseline data in more sports, sexes and age groups may be useful to identify sleep disorders in athletes and those who may be more at risk when travelling and also to compare PSG data on return to home to assess how long it takes for sleep to normalise.

9 Conclusion

This review and consensus statement highlights the complexity and lack of empirical research surrounding the measurement and management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes, curtailing the provision of strong recommendations. It concurs that travel fatigue and jet lag can inflict real and impactful issues on athletes regarding their performance and risk of illness or injury. Considering strategies pre-flight, during flight and after arrival at the destination, experts working in the field reached consensus on the management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes. Travel toolboxes covering fundamental principles and expert consensus recommendation for interventions are provided. Key interventions after travel include adjusting the sleep–wake cycle to counter travel fatigue and maximising the rate at which the body clock adapts to the new time zone by specifying 3 h periods of light exposure and avoidance to reduce jet lag. Importantly, inappropriate exposure may be counter-productive causing detrimental side effects. Lastly, this review outlines specific steps to advance theory and practice in the field, suggesting detailed areas of future research on travel fatigue and jet lag management in athletes.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Marizanne Booyens (Figs. 1 and 6 ) and to Heinrich Jansen van Rensburg (Figs. 2 , 4 and 5 ) for the graphics, Mrs Brenda Weder for editing and Mrs Madeleen Scheepers for upload of publications to Endnote library.

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Dina C. Janse van Rensburg & Audrey Jansen van Rensburg

International Netball Federation, Manchester, UK

Dina C. Janse van Rensburg

School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Peter M. Fowler

Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada

Amy M. Bender

Adelaide Institute for Sleep Health, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

David Stevens

Centre for Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Diseases, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

School of Allied Health, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Kieran O. Sullivan & Michelle Biggins

Ageing Research Centre, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Kieran O. Sullivan

School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Hugh H. K. Fullagar

Sports Medicine Department, Aspetar Hospital, Doha, Qatar

Juan-Manuel Alonso

Education and Research Department, South African Institute for Drug-Free Sport, Cape Town, South Africa

Amanda Claassen-Smithers

Medical Department, Golden Lions Rugby Union, Johannesburg, South Africa

Rob Collins

Section Sports Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Sport Medical Center, Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Michiko Dohi

Sport and Exercise, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia

Matthew W. Driller

Centre for Sleep Science, School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

Ian C. Dunican

English Institute of Sport, Bisham Abbey National High Performance Centre, Marlow, UK

School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Shona L. Halson

Appleton Institute for Behavioural Science, Central Queensland University, Adelaide, QLD, Australia

Michele Lastella, Greg Roach, Charli Sargent & Grace E. Vincent

Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia

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Laboratory of Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French National Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France

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Team Doctor All Blacks Rugby Team, Christchurch, New Zealand

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Meeta Singh

Laboratory of Movement and Sport Science, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy

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Correspondence to Dina C. Janse van Rensburg .

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Dina C (Christa) Janse Van Rensburg, Audrey Jansen van Rensburg, Peter M Fowler, Amy M Bender, David Stevens, Kieran O Sullivan, Hugh HK Fullagar, Juan-Manuel Alonso, Michelle Biggins, Amanda Claassen-Smithers, Rob Collins, Michiko Dohi, Matthew W Driller, Ian C Dunican, Luke Gupta, Shona L Halson, Michele Lastella, Kathleen H Miles, Mathieu Nedelec, Tony Page, Greg Roach, Charli Sargent, Meeta Singh, Grace E. Vincent, Jacopo A. Vitale, Tanita Botha declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

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Dina C (Christa) Janse van Rensburg (DCJvR): consensus concept, manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Audrey Jansen van Rensburg (AJvR): manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Peter Fowler (PF): manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Amy Bender (AB): group lead for terminology section, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. David Stevens (DS): group lead for human circadian section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Kieran O Sullivan (KoS): group lead for travel fatigue section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Hugh Fullagar (HF): group lead for jet lag section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Tanita Botha (TB): statistician, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, analyses of surveys, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. All other co-authors [Juan-Manuel Alonso (JMA), Michelle Biggins (MB), Amanda Claassen-Smithers (ACS), Rob Collins (RC), Michiko Dohi (MDo), Matthew Driller (MD), Ian Dunican (ID), Luke Gupta (LG), Shona Halson (SH), Michele Lastella (ML), Kathleen Miles (KM), Mathieu Nedelec (MN), Tony Page (TP), Greg Roach (GR), Charli Sargent (CS), Meeta Singh (MS), Grace Vincent (GV), Jacopo A. Vitale (JV)] contributed to manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the final version to be published.

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Janse van Rensburg, D.C., Jansen van Rensburg, A., Fowler, P.M. et al. Managing Travel Fatigue and Jet Lag in Athletes: A Review and Consensus Statement. Sports Med 51 , 2029–2050 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01502-0

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Accepted : 07 June 2021

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01502-0

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Managing Travel Fatigue and Jet Lag in Athletes: A Review and Consensus Statement

Dina c. janse van rensburg.

1 Section Sports Medicine and Sport Exercise Medicine and Lifestyle Institute (SEMLI), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Sports Campus, South Street, Hatfield, Pretoria, 0083 South Africa

2 International Netball Federation, Manchester, UK

Audrey Jansen van Rensburg

Peter m. fowler.

3 School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD Australia

Amy M. Bender

4 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada

David Stevens

5 Adelaide Institute for Sleep Health, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia Australia

6 Centre for Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Diseases, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia Australia

Kieran O. Sullivan

7 School of Allied Health, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

8 Ageing Research Centre, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Hugh H. K. Fullagar

9 School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW Australia

Juan-Manuel Alonso

10 Sports Medicine Department, Aspetar Hospital, Doha, Qatar

Michelle Biggins

Amanda claassen-smithers.

11 Education and Research Department, South African Institute for Drug-Free Sport, Cape Town, South Africa

Rob Collins

12 Medical Department, Golden Lions Rugby Union, Johannesburg, South Africa

13 Section Sports Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Michiko Dohi

14 Sport Medical Center, Japan Institute of Sports Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Matthew W. Driller

15 Sport and Exercise, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia

Ian C. Dunican

16 Centre for Sleep Science, School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

17 English Institute of Sport, Bisham Abbey National High Performance Centre, Marlow, UK

Shona L. Halson

18 School of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Brisbane, QLD Australia

Michele Lastella

19 Appleton Institute for Behavioural Science, Central Queensland University, Adelaide, QLD Australia

Kathleen H. Miles

20 Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia

Mathieu Nedelec

21 Laboratory of Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French National Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France

22 Team Doctor All Blacks Rugby Team, Christchurch, New Zealand

Charli Sargent

Meeta singh.

23 Henry Ford Sleep Disorders Center, Detroit, MI USA

Grace E. Vincent

Jacopo a. vitale.

24 Laboratory of Movement and Sport Science, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy

Tanita Botha

25 Department of Statistics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Associated Data

Athletes are increasingly required to travel domestically and internationally, often resulting in travel fatigue and jet lag. Despite considerable agreement that travel fatigue and jet lag can be a real and impactful issue for athletes regarding performance and risk of illness and injury, evidence on optimal assessment and management is lacking. Therefore 26 researchers and/or clinicians with knowledge in travel fatigue, jet lag and sleep in the sports setting, formed an expert panel to formalise a review and consensus document. This manuscript includes definitions of terminology commonly used in the field of circadian physiology, outlines basic information on the human circadian system and how it is affected by time-givers, discusses the causes and consequences of travel fatigue and jet lag, and provides consensus on recommendations for managing travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes. The lack of evidence restricts the strength of recommendations that are possible but the consensus group identified the fundamental principles and interventions to consider for both the assessment and management of travel fatigue and jet lag. These are summarised in travel toolboxes including strategies for pre-flight, during flight and post-flight. The consensus group also outlined specific steps to advance theory and practice in these areas.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01502-0.

Introduction

The modern-day athlete is often required to travel domestically and internationally including high-frequency short distances (< 3 h) and low-frequency long distances (> 3 h) that may involve the crossing of numerous time zones. The subsequent travel fatigue and jet lag experienced result in a myriad of shared symptoms, such as daytime fatigue, decreased concentration and alertness, sleep disruption and gastrointestinal disturbances [ 1 , 2 ]. These can lead to increased illness and injury risk as well as adverse effects on athletic performance [ 2 – 9 ].

Travel fatigue and jet lag are two distinct entities that may co-occur when travelling east or west across three or more time zones [ 2 , 4 , 10 – 12 ]. Travel fatigue occurs in all travelling athletes and can be acute following any individual long journey, or chronic (cumulative) as a consequence of repetitive travel within a season [ 4 , 10 ]. It is a multi-domain disturbance that generally occurs with any travel regardless of the direction of travel or the number of time-zones crossed [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 13 ]. It is caused by the demands of travel itself, such as cramped conditions, prolonged mild hypoxia, changes in the external environment (trans-latitudinal travel i.e. winter–summer/summer–winter) and reduced physical activity [ 10 ]. Jet lag is episodic with similar but more severe and prolonged symptoms compared to travel fatigue and follows rapid travel across 3 or more time-zones (transmeridian travel i.e. east–west/west–east) [ 4 , 10 ]. It is typically characterised by the desynchronisation between the internal human circadian system and the time at the new destination [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 11 , 14 ]. As a result, the circadian rhythm of several psychological, physiological and behavioural variables with a typical early morning nadir and late-afternoon peak is misaligned with the new local time. Depending on the training or competition time, this could directly affect athletic performance [ 2 , 4 , 5 ].

Although the circadian system is well understood and described in the circadian physiology literature [ 5 , 15 – 19 ], it remains difficult to translate and to apply this knowledge to travel management practice within sport. Research in this area is complex due to factors, such as inter-individual differences and the challenge of measuring the circadian phase in field studies, using markers, such as core body temperature (CBT) and melatonin. A recent systematic review on the management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes concluded that no evidence exists for specific travel fatigue interventions and that evidence for interventions targeting jet lag is of low quality [ 20 ].

Since evidence-based data underpinning travel fatigue and jet lag management are under-developed [ 3 , 21 ], an expert panel was formed to define criteria from existing recommendations [ 22 , 23 ], and to inform sport science and medicine practitioners and sport programme managers on current consensus-based recommendations from a practice-led perspective [ 24 ]. This paper aims to define the terminology commonly used in the field of circadian physiology; provide basic information on the human circadian system and how it is affected by time-givers ( zeitgebers ); discuss the causes and consequences of travel fatigue and jet lag; and provide consensus recommendations on managing travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes .

Our methodology is based on a recent publication, recommending specific criteria to reach consensus [ 23 ]. A lead group of three authors (CJvR, AJvR, PF) initially discussed the writing of a consensus document. A further 23 experienced researchers and clinical practitioners in the fields of travel fatigue, jet lag and sleep in the sports setting were invited to participate on the expert panel to formalise a consensus document and recommendations. The average experience of the authors in this field ranged from 4 to 25 years. The group consisted of 14 males and 12 females and embodied global representation from 11 different countries. Their expertise included 18 scientists (including sleep and circadian physiologists, sport scientists, a nutritionist and a statistician) and 8 medical team practitioners (medical doctors and physical therapists). The authors conducted comprehensive literature searches in PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Google Scholar, and SPORTDiscus to obtain relevant peer-reviewed publications regarding the human circadian system and the management of travel fatigue and/or jet lag. Two authors (CJvR, AJvR) compiled the first draft and sent it for initial comments by the full author group. The reviewed draft consisted of sections on terminology, the circadian system, travel fatigue and jet lag. According to preference, the authors chose primary working clusters from the four sections. Eight total Qualtrics surveys were sent for those sections where recommendations are provided, i.e. list of terminology (3), management options for travel fatigue (2) and management options for jet lag (3). A statistician (TC) analysed all feedback collected in the 8 surveys. To govern the threshold of agreement, only the statistician had access to the feedback provided by the authors.

The terminology group (AB, ID, TC) listed terms included in this consensus document that are commonly used to describe the human circadian system. The group provided three definitions for each term and administered a Qualtrics survey to systematically combine expert opinions and arrive at an informed group consensus on the selected terms. After the first round, a threshold of 80% agreement [ 23 ] was reached on the definitions of the following terms: biological night, chronobiotic, chronotype, circadian rhythm, jet lag, phase shift, phase response curve, re-entrainment, and suprachiasmatic nucleus. For the next round, the rest of the terms were included: body clock, core body temperature minimum (CBTmin), dim light melatonin onset (DLMO), internal desynchrony, melatonin, nadir, phase, process C, process S, retino-hypothalamic pathway, sedative (hypnotic), and zeitgebers (time-givers). For these terms, definitions with the least votes were excluded and the remaining two definitions were adapted according to comments suggested by the authors. In the 3rd round, the senior author group (CJvR, AJvR, PF) based consensus on the majority vote since authors could not agree on phrasing the definition of terms. Further comments from all authors were applied to reach the final definition for each term.

The circadian system group (DS, MD) summarised and documented relevant literature on the physiological, psychological and behavioural variables of the human circadian system. They focussed on the relevance to translate theory into practice.

The travel fatigue group (KoS, ACS, JV, KM, MB, ML, MN, SH) summarised current literature regarding the causes and consequences of travel fatigue. This group also listed potential management options based on available literature including current opinions, expert recommendations and research-based studies (laboratory and field) on the management of travel fatigue. All authors voted on the inclusion or exclusion of each management option. Consensus was reached after the 2nd Qualtrics survey. A threshold of 80% agreement [ 23 ] was used to indicate a consensus among the authors. The average response rate by the author group to reach consensus was 96.2%.

The jet lag group (HF, ACS, CS, GV, GR, JMA, LG, MS, MDo, RC, TP) summarised current literature regarding the causes and consequences of jet lag. This group listed potential management options based on available literature including current opinions, expert recommendations as well as research-based studies (laboratory and field) on the management of jet lag. All authors voted on the inclusion or exclusion of each management option using a Qualtrics survey. After three rounds of Qualtrics surveys, consensus was reached. A threshold of 75% agreement [ 23 ] to each survey was used to indicate consensus among the authors. The average response rate by the author group to reach consensus was 92.3%.

Each sub-group within the consensus group provided sections on their relevant topics to form a second draft. The lead group (CJvR, AJvR, PF) reviewed and collated the different sections into a third draft. The author group collectively revised this third draft. Extensive discussions by all members of the consensus group followed, and all authors provided comments and suggestions. The lead group accepted or declined all responses within reason and sent the 4th draft for another round of input from the author group. Subsequently, all authors of the consensus group reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Terminology

Terminology in the field of circadian physiology is complex. The following detailed explanations in Table ​ Table1 1 were developed by consensus and is an overview of specific terms and phrases commonly used when (a) referring to the human circadian system, or (b) when practitioners are contributing to travel planning and intervention design.

Terminology of specific terms and phrases of the human circadian system [ 2 , 5 , 13 , 15 – 18 , 25 – 34 ]

Although well described in the literature of circadian physiology, the information on the human circadian system is very detailed and beyond the scope of time-poor practitioners. The section below provides relevant information to aid practitioners to translate and apply circadian physiology into practical travel management.

Circadian System

The circadian system regulates the diurnal cyclical rhythms exhibited by physiological, psychological, and behavioural processes of the body over approximately 24 h [ 35 , 36 ]. This system is regulated by a central “master clock”, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), as well as peripheral clocks located in almost every cell of the body [ 16 – 18 ]. These are synchronised by a sophisticated system of neuronal, hormonal and autonomous signalling [ 13 ]. Output signals from the clocks are subsequently generated, influencing physiological, psychological and behavioural processes [ 15 ]. The master and peripheral clocks of the circadian system synchronise through zeitgebers or time-givers [ 37 ].

Time-Givers/ Zeitgebers

Common time-givers are light, sleep–wake transition, physical activity, social cues and meals [ 38 , 39 ]. Light is arguably the most critical time-giver, as photic stimuli, via the retino-hypothalamic pathway, stimulates or inhibits the SCN [ 13 , 15 , 16 , 18 ]. The timing, intensity, duration and spectral composition of light appear to be the most critical factors in altering the timing of the circadian system [ 13 , 27 ] (Fig.  1 ).

Schematic diagram of the circadian clock entrainment pathways. Light directly entrains the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), whereas other non-photic zeitgebers exhibit rhythmic changes and entrain the SCN and peripheral clocks throughout 24 h—adapted with permission from Buttgereit et al. [ 40 ] and Hood and Amir [ 41 ]

Phase Markers

Key players in successful circadian re-alignment are the phase markers melatonin and CBTmin. Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that aids in the process to consolidate sleep. The onset of secretion under dim light conditions, termed dim light melatonin onset (DLMO), occurs ~ 2 h before habitual bedtime and aligns with the start of the biological night [ 15 – 18 ]. The circadian rhythm of CBT oscillates ~ 0.8–1.0 °C between a night-time minimum and a daytime maximum in a rhythmic 24-h pattern [ 42 , 43 ], with CBTmin typically occurring between 03:00 and 07:00 [ 44 , 45 ].

Sleep Regulation

When CBT is at its lowest or is falling rapidly, it is easier to initiate sleep, whereas it is difficult to sleep when CBT is high or rising rapidly [ 2 , 46 ]. Internal physiological changes that occur due to the circadian system also play an important role in initiating sleep. As sleep homeostasis/sleep pressure commonly referred to as Process S, accumulates with increasing waking hours of sleep, circadian-induced secretion of melatonin along with reductions in CBT and blood pressure, known as Process C allows a person to sleep [ 32 ]. Misalignment between these processes often leads to sleep disruption, including difficulty initiating and/or maintaining sleep [ 32 ].

Phase-Shift

Exposure to a time-giver induces a wave response and can shift the circadian system (phase-advance or phase-delay). The strength of the shift is often described using a phase response curve (PRC). Light exposure during the 0–6 h period on either side of the CBTmin is effective but 0–3 h results in maximum phase shifts [ 47 – 49 ]. Although the dose–response relationship is non-linear, the wavelength (shorter blue light, 400–495 nm) and intensity of bright light (≥ 2500 lx) [ 50 , 51 ], and the duration of exposure (longer) will determine the degree to which the timing of the circadian system can be shifted [ 52 – 54 ]. The pattern of endogenous melatonin secretion is inversely related to body temperature—peak melatonin secretion occurs at the nadir of CBT (Fig.  2 ) [ 55 ]. Manipulating exposure to time-givers (Fig.  1 ) may aid in successful circadian re-alignment mitigating the effects of jet lag. Conversely, inappropriate exposure may be counter-productive and cause detrimental side effects. An example of this is evidenced by the impact of irregular exposure to bright light leading to cognitive deficits and mood alterations [ 56 ].

Normal profile of endogenous melatonin (red line) and schematic human phase response curves to light (dark blue line) and exogenous melatonin (light blue line). The y -axis on the right shows the endogenous melatonin concentration. The y -axis on the left shows the direction and relative magnitude of the phase shift following light exposure or exogenous melatonin administration at various times as presented on the x -axis. The magnitude of phase shifts will depend on the dosage used and should not be directly compared—adapted with permission from Eastman and Burgess [ 5 ] and Burgess et al. [ 57 ]

Individual Differences

Re-entrainment following a time-zone change is believed to also depend on an individual’s chronotype [ 13 , 19 , 58 ]. Hypothetically, the population consists of 3 chronotypes: morning-type- (18–30%), intermediate-type- (50–60%) and evening-type individuals (18–20%) [ 19 , 59 ]. Currently, evidence to support links between chronotype and jet lag symptoms is based on social jet lag and shift worker studies [ 60 – 63 ]. To assist practitioners in understanding their travelling athlete, and help individualise scheduled intervention (e.g. light therapy), please refer to the advice presented online in Electronic Supplementary Material Table S1: morning-type subjects vs. evening-type subjects [ 2 , 13 , 19 , 58 – 69 ]. Additionally, genetic differences regarding re-entrainment are of potential interest. Specifically, within the Period ( PER ) gene family, the PER3 4 allele is associated with extreme evening-type, whereas the PER3 5 allele is associated with extreme morning-type [ 69 ].

The Concept and Relationship Between Travel Fatigue and Jet Lag

Travel fatigue is a multi-domain disturbance that can be either acute or cumulative due to repetitive travel over a season, regardless of the mode of transport (road, rail, plane), the travel direction or the number of time zones crossed [ 2 , 4 , 10 , 13 ]. Jet lag follows any journey rapidly crossing three or more time-zones, is episodic and implies full recovery after resynchronisation [ 2 , 4 , 10 – 12 ]. The relationship between travel fatigue and jet lag is conceptualised in (Fig.  3 ) and further discussed in Sects. 6 and 7.

A proposed multifactorial model of travel fatigue and jet lag—adapted with permission from Samuels [ 4 ]. Travel fatigue (on the left) is influenced by both internal and external factors. Allowing a recovery window taking into account travel distance, travel time, travel frequency and the length of the season combined with monitoring and appropriate management will lead to the ideal outcome. Jet lag (on the right) is also influenced by external factors and less so by internal factors. Travel direction and travel distance, specifically the number of time zones crossed will affect the severity experienced by the individual. Recovery to achieve the ideal outcome relies on resynchronisation of the body clock

Travel Fatigue

Causes and consequences.

Travel fatigue refers to exhaustion and tiredness associated with any long journey [ 4 , 70 , 71 ] following trans-latitudinal travel (north–south/south–north) or transmeridian travel. It is a complex summation of physical, physiological and psychological factors that accrue during an individual trip [ 4 , 9 ], and could accumulate over a competition season. At present, there is substantial anecdotal evidence of its prevalence [ 4 , 9 , 61 , 72 – 74 ]. There is however a lack of empirical evidence of the mechanisms underpinning travel fatigue, and how it might be prevented or its impact lessened [ 20 ]. Some commonly perceived contributors to travel fatigue are highlighted in Fig.  3 and Table ​ Table2 2 .

Possible physical, physiological, psychological contributors to travel fatigue [ 4 , 9 , 14 , 20 , 61 , 70 – 85 ]

When discussing the burden of travel fatigue on athletes, there are four key factors to consider: the total distance travelled, the time of travel (am or pm), the frequency of travel, and the length of the season. This concept is also referred to as the “recovery window” and indicates the available time for recovery (Fig.  3 ). The first three factors are well-documented in some professional sports [ 83 , 86 , 87 ]. For example, the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) regular season continues over 6 months consisting of 41 home games and 41 away games often inclusive of back-to-back games [ 87 ]. Congested schedules often include large travel distances as experienced by teams within the 4 top professional leagues [i.e. the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Baseball (MLB), National Football League (NFL), and the NBA] in the United States entailing travel between 40,000 km (once around the world) and 80,000 km (twice around the world) per season [ 88 ].

There is limited evidence on the potential consequences of travel fatigue. Studies have assessed the acute effects of air travel without crossing time zones on performance and perceptual measures among team sports players [ 6 – 9 ]. Overall, under these circumstances, travel has no noticeable effect on indicators of performance (i.e. technical and tactical performance during competition; countermovement jump performance; Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test performance), but negatively influences perceptual measures (e.g. reduced alertness, motivation and mood, increased perceived stress and fatigue) [ 4 , 6 – 9 ].

Assessment of Teams and Athletes

Athlete monitoring tools may help to understand both acute and chronic travel fatigue in athletes. In this respect, the creation and validation of a travel fatigue scale would improve understanding of the travelling effect [ 72 ] and should target measurement of the main symptoms of travel fatigue, namely persistent fatigue, recurrent illness, behaviour and mood changes and loss of motivation. An ideal tool should detect a significant part of travel fatigue including travel, sport, personal, social and seasonal factors and also provide scores for both individual trips and accumulative travel fatigue over a season (repeated measures design). Additionally, the coefficient of variation between different assessments of the same athlete should be small in comparison with the difference between athletes. Finally, its levels should not vary significantly in the same athletes under the same conditions at different times. As this is a highly individualised measurement, it should be used primarily to detect intra-individual changes. Travel fatigue is multifactorial and presently no single marker quantifies all these requirements. Surrogate markers for travel fatigue must include subjective ratings of sleep quality, stress/mood, fatigue, and recovery [ 89 ]. Current recommended tools include the Total Quality of Recovery Scale [ 90 ] to measure psychophysiological recovery (i.e. mood states and body signals, such as sensations of soreness or heaviness), the Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes Questionnaire and the Acute Recovery Stress Scale [ 91 ], which are also practical and intelligible measures that can be used to monitor general changes in fatigue and recovery states [ 92 ]. Athletes must be thoroughly familiarised with these perceptual rating scales in order to benefit. Notably, travel fatigue-specific assessments would only be used in a scenario where jet lag is not a problem (e.g. teams competing in the UEFA European Football Championship), as there is shared symptomatology and it is difficult to separate out the fatigue caused by the travel itself. It is also important to take into account that too many different psychometric tools will add to the daily burden on athletes and may lead to superficial feedback.

Current Recommendations in the Management of Travel Fatigue

A recent systematic review reported that no research exists on interventions that specifically manage travel fatigue in athletes [ 20 ] with available studies limited to opinions and collective experience rather than original research [ 93 ]. While travel distance or duration may be the key factor in the magnitude of travel fatigue experienced, having an adequate period to recover from travel (e.g. a recovery window) to prepare for training or competition is critical [ 4 ] and should be accounted for in travel arrangements. This may be unfeasible for athletes that travel frequently. Hence, they may need to implement interventions before and during travel to reduce fatigue (e.g. protecting sleep) or to treat fatigue post-travel (e.g. utilising napping and caffeine) [ 4 , 94 ]. Following consensus, the information discussed in Table ​ Table3 3 was determined valuable for the management of travel fatigue.

Important information to consider in the application of travel fatigue management [ 2 , 4 , 82 , 93 – 103 ]

The concept of “time-zone differential” relies on the function of distance travelled, i.e. travel duration and number of time-zones crossed as well as the travel direction. It is a circadian phenomenon specifically relating to jet lag [ 4 ] (Fig.  3 ). After rapid transmeridian travel (air travel across 3 or more time-zones) or trans-latitudinal travel including crossing of three or more time zones, the circadian system cannot immediately adjust to the light–dark cycle in the new time zone. This causes internal desynchrony, between both the master and peripheral clocks [ 2 ], as well as with sleep homeostasis [ 5 , 104 ]. As a result, the circadian system remains aligned, at least initially, with the timing of the light–dark cycle in the departure time zone rather than the arrival time zone [ 105 ]. The circadian system must be re-entrained, whereby the internal clocks resynchronise with external time-givers (Fig.  2 ) [ 17 , 18 ], over several days [ 2 ]. As a rule of thumb, the duration of natural alignment is 0.5 days per time-zone crossed in a westerly direction, i.e. 2 h per day, and 1 day per time zone crossed in an easterly direction, i.e. 1 h per day [ 5 , 57 ]. Until re-entrainment is complete, the physiological and psychological systems that are regulated by the circadian system (e.g. digestion, sleep, or mood) will remain misaligned with the new local time, and depending on time of training or competition, this may impact performance [ 2 , 5 , 9 , 21 ].

Consequences

The most common symptoms of jet lag are gastrointestinal discomfort, daytime fatigue/sleepiness, impaired mental or physical performance and poor sleep [ 71 , 106 ]. The intensity and duration of jet lag symptoms worsen with an increasing number of time zones crossed, i.e. crossing 3–4 time zones produces milder symptoms compared to crossing 10–12 time zones [ 106 ]. The experience of jet lag is also greatly influenced by the direction of travel [ 5 ]. For example, after a westward flight over 8 time zones, athletes will feel sleepy, their performance will be impaired in the evening, and they will wake earlier than usual in the morning [ 21 ]. In contrast, after an eastward flight over 8 time zones, athletes will also feel sleepy, but their performance will be impaired in the early afternoon, they will have difficulty falling asleep at their regular bedtime, and they will sleep in later than usual [ 21 ]. Chronotype may also influence these responses as morning larks adapt better to eastward travel (easier to shift circadian rhythms earlier), whereas night owls adapt better to westward travel (easier to shift circadian rhythms later) [ 62 ].

Given the complexity of the disruption to the circadian system, as well as the variety of associated physiological and psychological symptoms, several assessment tools can be used to assess the different aspects of jet lag. These may include questionnaires, sleep diaries in conjunction with actigraphy and circadian-phase markers.

Of the available questionnaires, the Liverpool Jet Lag Questionnaire appears to be the most valid and reliable subjective tool [ 74 , 107 ]. This questionnaire is a visual analogue scale with 15 subjective ratings about overall perceived jet lag and its symptoms (sleep, fatigue, appetite, mental performance and bowel function), measured at different times of the day. Other tools such as the Columbian Jet Lag Scale [ 108 ] may offer suitable alternatives [ 109 ].

Actigraphy typically utilises movement-derived algorithms to provide estimates of sleep timing, duration and quality, and is commonly used in athletic settings in conjunction with sleep diaries [ 110 , 111 ]. While actigraphy can help with information regarding rest–activity and/or sleep behaviour during travel, there is minimal evidence to support its use in evaluating jet lag per se. Circadian-phase markers perhaps represent the most accurate objective measure to assess jet lag, as they examine a phase response to interventions (e.g. CBT, salivary melatonin,[ 48 , 112 ] body skin temperature) [ 13 , 113 , 114 ] but are unlikely suitable for sport due to the practicality, cost and invasiveness. If feasible, these circadian-phase markers could give insight into designing optimal jet lag interventions. A technique to indicate if sleep–wake behaviour has adapted is to measure the change in the mid-point of the sleep period between home and destination time zone, i.e. the difference in the median hours between bedtime and get-up time as assessed by actigraphy [ 60 , 115 ]. The authors suggest this as a possible alternative to measuring CBT and salivary melatonin-phase markers.

There are several online jet lag calculators and mobile applications which provide advice on the timing of interventions to theoretically help adjust to a new time-zone [ 116 – 118 ]. In the elite sport environment, these calculators and mobile applications still require validation of the scientific base used to provide this advice, i.e. how is circadian phase determined, and are the proposed interventions evidence-based [ 119 ]. The consensus group cautions against the use of these until further research examining the efficacy and effectiveness of these tools in the athlete environment has been conducted.

Choosing measures to assess jet lag depends on a range of factors, such as the intention of the measure, validity and reliability, suitability for laboratory or field testing, as well as cost, time, practicality and expertise of operation. Teams or athletes are best served to select a tool that serves their direct purpose. Further research is needed to determine appropriate assessment measures of jet lag for teams and athletes [ 20 , 120 ].

Current Recommendations in the Management of Jet Lag

Most literature refers to light, melatonin and preservation of sleep as the best options to mitigate jet lag. Considering the impact of sleep loss on performance, one of the main goals taking into account the athlete’s training and competition schedules, should be to preserve sleep. Other strategies include exercise, nutrition, melatonin analogues, sedatives and stimulants. The literature regarding recommendations on management strategies is published mainly as opinions [ 4 , 13 , 93 , 106 ], collective experience manuscripts [ 3 , 5 , 21 , 121 ], laboratory research studies on how to induce a phase shift [ 122 – 125 ] and laboratory research studies on how to recover from a phase shift [ 20 , 48 , 49 ]. Considering the literature referenced in this consensus paper, extrapolating evidence from healthy community and military populations and following the findings of a recent systematic review [ 20 ], the author group collectively summarised current recommendations based on consensus (Table ​ (Table4, 4 , Figs. ​ Figs.4, 4 , ​ ,5 5 and ​ and6 6 ).

Essential information to manage jet lag [ 3 – 5 , 13 , 20 , 21 , 48 , 49 , 93 , 106 , 121 – 127 ]

Recommended interventions to help prevent or reduce the effect of jet lag

Combined interventions and short-term travel recommendations to help prevent or reduce the effect of jet lag

The combined use of light (exposure or avoidance), exogenous melatonin ingestion and administration of short-acting hypnotics to facilitate adaptation to phase shifts from the day of arrival. a Depicts westward travel with the first row illustrating normal home time. The next three rows illustrate travel crossing 4, 8 and 12 h time zones, respectively. Each row represents the current phase of the circadian system on the day of arrival. The CBTmin shifts by 0.5 days per time zone crossed, i.e. delays by 2 h per day and application of interventions need to be adapted according to the shifting of the CBTmin. b Depicts eastward travel with the first row illustrating normal home time. The next three rows illustrate travel crossing 4, 8 and 12 h time zones, respectively. Each row represents the current phase of the circadian system on the day of arrival. The CBTmin shifts by 1 day per time zone crossed, i.e. advances by 1 h per day and application of interventions need to be adapted according to the shifting of the CBTmin. We constructed a recommendation based on a scientific measurement (CBTmin and DLMO) that can be reasonably applied for any number of time zones crossed. Travelling > 8 h EAST, it may be preferable to adapt by delay (moving backward) instead of advance (moving forward) as the body clock adjusts to large delays more easily than to large advances). Once CBTmin at the destination occurs within the scheduled sleep period, partial adaptation is achieved, and the individual is likely to encounter less sleep disruption. Once CBTmin at the destination occurs at the same time as pre-travel (home time), complete adaptation is achieved

Theoretical Concepts to Guide Future Research

To address the gaps in knowledge, high-quality multi-centre research that is repeatable and reliable is required in athletes, and utilising multi-disciplinary methodology in an attempt to adopt a holistic approach [ 146 ]. Specific measurements are required [e.g. CBT, melatonin, electroencephalogram (EEG)] otherwise the “research” will continue to either be surrogate measures, opinions or collective experiences.

For travel fatigue, randomised trials and longitudinal studies are needed to compare interventions aiming to reduce travel fatigue. Cabin conditions including seat size in buses, trains and planes can contribute to travel fatigue and require more research. The impact of specific parameters related to air travel, such as the average flight altitude, and the frequency and magnitude of atmospheric pressure, changes during the flight, which affects air cabin oxygen saturation levels are also worth exploring. Additionally, information on how travel fatigue is impacted following short distance (< 3 h) vs. long distance (> 3 h) travel, as well as the direction of travel (north–south/south–north, east–west/west–east) and the frequency of travel across a season is required. From a different perspective, there may be value in qualitative research evaluating how much athletes, coaches and support staff value and use monitoring tools. Determining the specific intervention, and the reason why coaches and athletes utilise these to minimise travel fatigue is also important. This is significant considering the burden which can be associated with athlete monitoring, the role of coaches and support staff in interpreting such data, concerns about whether such data are used in a meaningful manner, and the importance of athlete psychological health in perceived fatigue [ 147 ].

Well-controlled field-based jet lag studies that examine circadian adaptation and the impact of light exposure or avoidance schedules, using an appropriate phase marker, are required. To better understand risk factors and develop at-risk profiles for suitable interventions aligned to these profiles, tools to predict jet lag symptom severity and chronicity in individual travelling athletes need to be developed. Multi-centre studies exploring travel across a season, in competitions that involve frequent transmeridian travel (e.g. World Rugby 7 Series) rather than just assessing the impact of once-off travel will be valuable. Polysomnography (PSG) baseline data in more sports, sexes and age groups may be useful to identify sleep disorders in athletes and those who may be more at risk when travelling and also to compare PSG data on return to home to assess how long it takes for sleep to normalise.

This review and consensus statement highlights the complexity and lack of empirical research surrounding the measurement and management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes, curtailing the provision of strong recommendations. It concurs that travel fatigue and jet lag can inflict real and impactful issues on athletes regarding their performance and risk of illness or injury. Considering strategies pre-flight, during flight and after arrival at the destination, experts working in the field reached consensus on the management of travel fatigue and jet lag in athletes. Travel toolboxes covering fundamental principles and expert consensus recommendation for interventions are provided. Key interventions after travel include adjusting the sleep–wake cycle to counter travel fatigue and maximising the rate at which the body clock adapts to the new time zone by specifying 3 h periods of light exposure and avoidance to reduce jet lag. Importantly, inappropriate exposure may be counter-productive causing detrimental side effects. Lastly, this review outlines specific steps to advance theory and practice in the field, suggesting detailed areas of future research on travel fatigue and jet lag management in athletes.

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Marizanne Booyens (Figs. ​ (Figs.1 1 and ​ and6) 6 ) and to Heinrich Jansen van Rensburg (Figs. ​ (Figs.2, 2 , ​ ,4 4 and ​ and5) 5 ) for the graphics, Mrs Brenda Weder for editing and Mrs Madeleen Scheepers for upload of publications to Endnote library.

Declarations

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this article.

Dina C (Christa) Janse Van Rensburg, Audrey Jansen van Rensburg, Peter M Fowler, Amy M Bender, David Stevens, Kieran O Sullivan, Hugh HK Fullagar, Juan-Manuel Alonso, Michelle Biggins, Amanda Claassen-Smithers, Rob Collins, Michiko Dohi, Matthew W Driller, Ian C Dunican, Luke Gupta, Shona L Halson, Michele Lastella, Kathleen H Miles, Mathieu Nedelec, Tony Page, Greg Roach, Charli Sargent, Meeta Singh, Grace E. Vincent, Jacopo A. Vitale, Tanita Botha declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Ethical approval was received from the University of Pretoria, South Africa (REC 428/2015).

Not applicable.

All Authors approved of this version for publication.

Dina C (Christa) Janse van Rensburg (DCJvR): consensus concept, manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Audrey Jansen van Rensburg (AJvR): manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Peter Fowler (PF): manuscript planning, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Amy Bender (AB): group lead for terminology section, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. David Stevens (DS): group lead for human circadian section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Kieran O Sullivan (KoS): group lead for travel fatigue section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Hugh Fullagar (HF): group lead for jet lag section, manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. Tanita Botha (TB): statistician, manuscript writing (first draft), development of surveys towards consensus voting, analyses of surveys, manuscript review and editing, approved the version to be published. All other co-authors [Juan-Manuel Alonso (JMA), Michelle Biggins (MB), Amanda Claassen-Smithers (ACS), Rob Collins (RC), Michiko Dohi (MDo), Matthew Driller (MD), Ian Dunican (ID), Luke Gupta (LG), Shona Halson (SH), Michele Lastella (ML), Kathleen Miles (KM), Mathieu Nedelec (MN), Tony Page (TP), Greg Roach (GR), Charli Sargent (CS), Meeta Singh (MS), Grace Vincent (GV), Jacopo A. Vitale (JV)] contributed to manuscript writing (first draft), consensus voting, manuscript review and editing, approved the final version to be published.

Contributor Information

Dina C. Janse van Rensburg, Email: [email protected] .

Audrey Jansen van Rensburg, Email: [email protected] .

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Jet lag: How athletes can combat fatigue after flying

Jet lag and travel fatigue are no fun for anyone and can negatively impact athletic performance - but here's some tricks and tips to combat air travel.

By Will Ambler Last updated: March 1st, 2024 4 min read

How athletes can make plane travel easier on their bodies

Jet lag and travel fatigue are no fun for anyone – but here’s some tricks and tips to combat them.

How can athletes combat the effects of plane travel?

• Travel allows athletes to compete against the best competitors in the world and for the most amount of money. Travel is not without its challenges as it can negatively impact performance.
• Travel fatigue is a post-travel state of weariness. The symptom can be mitigated with a good night’s sleep post-travel and pre-competition.
• Jet lag occurs when our human functioning patterns are knocked out of sync. The effects of jet lag are made worse when athletes travel across multiple timezones. Typically, athletes recover from jet lag at a rate of one day per timezone crossed.

Athletes have travelled to compete in sports as early as 776 BC, the year of the very first ancient Olympics. They travel for multiple reasons including better weather, to compete for more money, and the chance to test themselves against the very best. But travelling often creates challenges for athletes and has been shown to negatively impact performance, a leading sports researcher says.

“In the past, athletes faced many challenges with some enduring long travel times. The 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay is said to be one of the first competitions which was attended by multiple nations and athletes. At the time, travelling to Uruguay was not easy [relative to today] and took several days for some teams and athletes who travelled by boat,” explained acclaimed sports researcher Dr Michele Lo during his Science for Sport Presentation titled ‘The Effects of Travel on Athletes’ Performance’ .

Today, the logistical challenges of travelling are not the most impactful on performance. Instead, Lo explains there are two other reasons why travel is detrimental to performance.

“Travel fatigue and jet lag are the often unavoidable symptoms of travel which detrimentally impact sports performance,” said Lo.

Travel symptom 1 – travel fatigue

Travel fatigue is a post-travel state of weariness and “occurs every time we travel and is a result of physiological, psychological, and environmental factors,” according to Lo.

Physiological factors include the position athletes sit in as they travel. Human bodies are not made to sit in a cramped position for an extended period of time and this leads to stiffness and muscle soreness.

Also, travel fatigue can be worsened by psychological stresses.

“The fear of flying, baggage claims, forgetting your passport, and arriving on time are examples of what can cause psychologically-derived travel fatigue,” said Lo.

Lo explained: “Travel fatigue affects athletes’ performance acutely and over time, but can be reduced through effective travel planning – to ensure the smoothest journey – and can be reduced by keeping your body moving when travelling with stretches and wearing compression garments.

“To further mitigate travel fatigue, you should allow your athletes a good night’s sleep after they travel and before a competition. Research has shown that rest and sleep are the most effective way to mitigate travel fatigue.” For example, if an athlete is competing on a Sunday, it would be better for them to travel on Friday to allow a day of recovery on Saturday.

Travel symptom 2 – Jet lag

Jet lag is different from travel fatigue in that it only occurs when there is a desynchronisation of circadian rhythm (a pattern of human bodily function – for instance, a human’s wake-sleep cycle).

“Jet lag does not occur every time athletes travel but the effects of the symptom are compounded the more timezones crossed,” explained Lo. “Circadian rhythms last about a day, and typically, athletes recover from jet lag at a rate of one day per timezone crossed.” Flying from Dubai to London, for example, crosses three timezones and generally takes about eight hours of flying time.

Jet lag causes our body to fall out of sync with its regular processes and that reduces athletes’ chances of performing at their best. To combat jet lag, Lo outlined a number of strategies:

• Avoid bright lights before sleep when adjusting to a new timezone.
• Exercise post-travel.
• Adjust to the new timezone before you travel.
• Consume sleeping tablets and/or caffeine to delay the onset of jet lag.
• Check melatonin (sleep hormone) levels and amend with supplementation.

Dr Michele (Mick) Lo completed his PhD in 2018 at Victoria University in Melbourne with a thesis on the effects of travel on professional rugby union players. In the past, he completed a  Bachelor’s degree in Sports Science (2007) at the University of Milan, Italy, a Master’s in Sports Science and Exercise Physiology (2009) at the University of Brescia, Italy and a Bachelor in Physiotherapy (2013) at the University of Brescia and Universidad Francisco Vitoria in Madrid, Spain.

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Booking the perfect trip can be time-consuming and stressful as you attempt to secure jet seats, luxury accommodations, transportation and destination excursions. Instead of doing all the research yourself, many luxury-focused agencies cater to requests for just about any travel style.

Until recently, bespoke travel packages were an exclusive privilege for those with a near-limitless travel budget. However, these innovative experiences are now attainable by many through small group journeys and curated itineraries as Jets100 offers at a fraction of the cost of traditional charter travel or boutique travel agencies.

Afshin Sajedi, the CEO of Jets 100, said his goal is to “pioneer sustainable luxury in high-end travel.” He helped drive Jets 100's global expansion, offering journeys to Formula 1 destinations mentioned above and beyond. From Jet 100's website their focus is on their “commitment to customer-centricity and cutting-edge technology ensures Jets100 remains at the forefront of private aviation, shaping the future of luxury travel with unparalleled sophistication and environmental stewardship.”

Sajedi’s vision of affordable private jet experiences stems from his journey of being born in Iran, overcoming various challenges, and is now a successful entrepreneur based out of the United States. He also shares his passion by writing the chapter, “Beyond First Class: Redefining Luxury Travel in the 21st Century” in Brian Tracy’s book, Winning Strategies for Success .

Examples of Luxury Travel

Travelers wanting to build an ongoing relationship with a particular agency can benefit from working with a solo organization or a dedicated luxury travel agent. Customizable packages vary by agency.

Small Group Journeys

Jets100 specializes in small group journeys on a private jet for example to Ambergris Cay in Turks and Caicos. They offer a variety of trips including Caribbean experiences (such as private islands, and other tropical destinations), sporting experiences (skiing, golfing, tennis opens and other non-F1 sports), Olympics Experiences, and Entertainment Experiences (film festivals, award shows, fashion weeks etc). They can also tailor-make group trips for clients according to their needs and interests.

Ambergris Cay is a unique destination because it has its own private airport with the longest runway in the Caribbean, and can accommodate jets as big as the Gulfstream G500, so they land right on the island, a few feet away from their bungalow or villa at the 5-star resort.

Everything is taken care of on the island as well, all gourmet food and cocktails, activities, boat trips, etc and when the trip is over you can just walk a few feet to the private jet. Completely seamless and convenient.

Jets 100 strives to provide an above-average VIP experience from start to finish with convenient worldwide access to private jet travel, invite-only red carpet events, and exclusive pricing. Monthly and yearly membership packages are available allowing up to eight members and eight partners or guests to travel.

Members can jet from seven departure points (Dubai, London, Los Angeles, Madrid, Miami, Monaco, and New York) and choose from over 40 packages. Each itinerary departs from private airports, allows for networking with other luxury travelers, and comes with white glove service.

The on-flight private jet experience includes select wines, champagnes, craft cocktails, and a personalized menu. Each jet can hold parties of at least 13 guests, making it an excellent option for large groups and for achieving luxury travel at a fraction of the standard rates for empty leg or charter flights.

Upon landing, private transfers pre-load your luggage and transport you directly to your accommodations of choice. Each package lists several five-star hotels to stay at offering luxury suites. For additional flexibility, alternative accommodations such as presidential suites and penthouses are available upon request. The concierge can attend to other tailored requests too.

Along with curated itineraries, the customer-centric brand allows travelers to customize trips by proposing a domestic or international destination of choice for the ultimate private travel

experience. Trip organizers help plan an itinerary, book accommodations, and charter aircraft at a reasonable cost.

Other luxury travel agencies also offer small group journeys throughout the world. These are excellent ways to intimately enjoy the marvels of the world that can be challenging as a family trip or too stressful in a traditional travel group, as these outings usually cap out at 20 people.

Popular expeditions include:

● Australia and New Zealand

● Galapagos and Machi Picchu

● Greece and Turkey

● Indochina and Angkor Wat

● Machu Picchu and Peru's Sacred Valley

● Patagonia

● Petra to the Pyramids and a Nile yacht cruise

● Spain and Morocco

● Taj Mahal and India

Depending on the itinerary, it's possible to fly private jets between multiple cities to cover a lot of ground during the destination to hit all the sights.

Luxury Cruises

Instead of booking the finest stateroom on a cruise ship, luxury sea and river voyages and private yachts are an excellent option for land and sea itineraries.

Voyages continually steam in European rivers, the Mediterranean, and Antarctica. For optimal pre- and post-cruise experiences, you can add private shore excursions to the itinerary with the assistance of local guides.

Chartering luxury private yachts through many reputable agencies worldwide is also possible. Destinations with private charters can include:

● Antarctica

● Caribbean

● Indian Ocean

● Middle East

● Northern Europe

● South Pacific

Yacht charters are a superb way to access remote islands, fishing villages, and maritime landmarks that are challenging to visit by land or air. They are also an excellent way to spend time on or in the water while easily partaking in private shore excursions.

Formula 1 Experiences

Jets 100 also specializes in Grand Prix experiences, which include private jet flights and enjoying time on the racetrack while emphasizing sustainability. The destination options depend on the travel time as it depends on where the next race is.

Some of the Grand Prix destinations in 2024 include:

● Sakhir, Bahrain (February 27 to March 5)

● Melbourne, Australia (March 19 to March 30)

● Shanghai, China (April 16 to April 27)

● Miami (May 1 to May 8)

● Monaco (May 22 to May 29)

● Montreal (June 4 to June 15)

● Barcelona (June 19 to June 26)

● Budapest (July 17 to July 24)

● Singapore (September 18 to September 28)

● Mexico City (October 23 to November 1)

● Las Vegas (November 19 to November 30)

● Abu Dhabi (December 5 to December 9)

Three-tier packages are available for each racing experience, including different seating areas and exclusive experiences. For example, the mid-tier and upper-tier packages typically include driver photo opportunities, guided track tours, and paddock access. All track experiences earn F1® Experiences Rewards to enjoy discounted ticket packages and hotel prices for future trips.

Along with year-round F1 experience packages that follow the racing circuit, Jets 100 can make luxury leisure and business travel easier and more affordable. The platform offers a shared flights feature where passengers can propose a destination and other travelers within the Jets 100 network can reserve a seat to split the costs. This customization minimizes travel inconveniences and presents more opportunities to network with business leaders and like- minded travelers.

Luxury Travel Subscriptions

The on-demand subscription model is available for luxury travelers through month-to-month memberships like the Inspirato Pass. This flexible membership provides access to approximately one million itineraries at five-star hotels, resorts, and vacation homes in over 100 destinations.

Unlike the traditional model of paying a monthly agency fee and paying extra for trip reservations, this pass is an all-inclusive option. Therefore, it’s possible to find luxury sweet spots at preferred pricing lower than the public rate.

The Inspirato Pass is currently $2,550 per month, and it can be worth it when your accommodations typically cost this much or more. You can cancel at any time when the membership exceeds your break-even point.

Personalized Vacation Packages

Luxury travel agencies such as Scott Dunn can build a personalized itinerary with the help of a local specialist based on the travel party’s size, age, and interests. You can experience private tours and curated accommodation in over 110 countries.

Since 1986, the agency has been creating journeys for adults, families with children of any age, and multi-generational households. Unlike some luxury travel organizations, it doesn’t require a monthly or annual membership fee plus extra fees for planning trips. Removing these barriers of entry can make this travel strategy substantially less frustrating.

Vacation options can include:

● African safaris

● Asian wildlife expeditions

● Cruise vacations

● Historical Europe

● Luxury beaches and private islands

● Private yachts

● Rail journeys

● Ski hotels

Guests with children between the ages of four months and 11 years may enjoy staying at all- inclusive resorts with exclusive Explorers Kids Clubs. Safe and premier childcare is available at destinations across the French Alps, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, and United Arab Emirates.

Frequent travelers can work with a relationship manager to schedule various trips throughout the year with the invitation-only Scott Dunn Private program.

Premium Credit Cards

Bespoke packages may only be feasible for some trips. You can still enjoy a taste of luxury travel with a premium credit card that offers travel credits, concierge services, and exclusive access to events.

For many, The Platinum Card® from American Express is one of the most luxurious credit cards. It offers several flight and resort perks, and the Amex concierge can build a travel package. Cardholder benefits, including private jet credits, make these itineraries more enticing.

Also, premium cards usually provide exclusive cardholder experiences when the issuer sponsors a culinary, cultural, entertainment, or sporting event.

One such example is that cardholders of the Chase Sapphire Reserve® at Miami Race Week from May 2 to 5, 2025. Sapphire members can purchase VIP grandstand packages, VIP boathouse packages, and access to the trackside Chase Sapphire Lounge.

In addition to seasonal luxury travel packages, premium travel cards offer many ongoing benefits, such as complimentary airport lounge access, elite travel status perks, and trip cancellation or interruption insurance, which can improve the quality of many run-of-the-mill itineraries.

There are plenty of luxury private travel possibilities to choose from whether it's F1 racing, exploring historical landmarks, or exotic getaways. There are many travel dates, and the best packages tend to focus on notable events to enjoy a once-in-a-lifetime experience in addition to being a tourist.

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Unveiling The Secrets Behind The Concorde's Record-Breaking Flights

W hen a plane like the Concorde Jet is ahead of its time and doesn't ultimately last, it's more than simply a defunct project, it's a failed promise of the future, of what could have been. There was once a supersonic passenger jet that could travel faster than the speed of sound and cut half the flight time off routes, but today we still only have regular, non-supersonic flights. It's the same feeling you get when stepping off one of those moving walkways at the airport.

The Concorde was essentially a record-breaking machine. It could achieve speeds of 1,354 mph , otherwise known as Mach 2.04, which is more than twice the speed of sound. In 1996, that's what enabled it to traverse from New York City to London in a paltry two hours and 53 minutes, a record that Guinness labeled the "fastest flight across the Atlantic in a commercial aircraft." This isn't to suggest that every flight it offered passengers would regularly achieve such record-breaking speeds, but every aspect of its design was streamlined with an eye toward really fast flights.

Read more: The 10 Most Iconic Airplanes In Aviation History, Ranked

Where That Innovative Speed Came From

A rare collaboration between the French and British aviation industries, the idea behind the Concorde was to significantly reduce long-haul flights in key routes around the world. It certainly did. It was powered by four afterburner-equipped Olympus 593 Mk610 turbojet engines, an engine technology often reserved for military jets and found on Avro Vulcan strategic bombers . Like those bombers, the Concorde had the ability to travel at altitudes upwards of 60,000 ft , meaning it encountered thinner air and less drag than lower, traditional commercial flights.

The Concorde managed to even look fast while parked, and there was a reason for that. Every part of the aircraft –- from the adjustable, downward-turned nose to the stretched-out body to the curved wings – was streamlined to reduce drag and increase flying speed. Those delta-wings (once again similar to the Avro Vulcan) were set at a 55-degree angle with the fuselage, reducing drag along a body designed to absorb the impact of shockwaves while traveling at supersonic speeds.

When it comes to the record-breaking transatlantic flight, the time achieved was more than due to the aforementioned design specs, as Simple Flying notes . It was planned that way by everyone involved, including Captain Leslie Scott, First Officer Tim Orchard, and Engineering Officer Rick Eades. They apparently chose February for its ideal upper air temperature and wind velocity, and achieved Mach 2 quickly and for as long as possible during the flight. Additionally, while the approaching runway at Heathrow usually had flights arriving from the east, the Concorde was coming from the west and convinced air traffic controllers to let them land that way to preserve the record-breaking flight time. It's safe to say that such considerations aren't usually made for other flights that don't break records.

Why It Came To An End

Building, operating, and maintaining such an advanced aircraft came with exceedingly high costs , which seemingly hamstrung the program from the start. Work on the aircraft exceeded $2 billion, over four times the initial estimate, and the aircraft consumed around 6,770 gallons of fuel per hour of flight, about double the amount of the giant Airbus A380,  according to How Stuff Works . These high production and maintenance costs came against inevitable high ticket costs that were out of reach for the average passenger, often between $12,000 to $14,000 for a roundtrip ticket .

Then in July 2000, an Air France Concorde departed Paris's DeGaulle airport for New York, when one of the engines caught fire and caused the aircraft to crash in France, killing all 109 passengers aboard, as well as four people on the ground. After a year-long grounding by the FAA, the Concorde's last commercial flight came in 2003, with the 100 celebrity-laden passengers spending upwards of $60,000 for a roundtrip ticket from JFK to Heathrow.

While supersonic commercial flights remain highly costly and impractical for the immediate future, the Concorde's innovation continues to make waves in the airline industry, in the hopes of mainstreaming commercial supersonic speeds that are both convenient and safe for passengers seeking to arrive a little sooner. American company Boom Supersonic hopes for its Overture SST to reach this with the 75% less cost, and last year CNN reported  that European company Destinus was targeting hypersonic flights between Dubai and Memphis. Where this all goes remains to be seen, yet perhaps one day it'll take us to a time when we're no longer romanticizing the Concorde because we have something better. But that'll probably take a while.

Read the original article on SlashGear

40 Facts About Elektrostal

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 01 Jun 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy , materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes , offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development .

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy , with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

Elektrostal's fascinating history, vibrant culture, and promising future make it a city worth exploring. For more captivating facts about cities around the world, discover the unique characteristics that define each city . Uncover the hidden gems of Moscow Oblast through our in-depth look at Kolomna. Lastly, dive into the rich industrial heritage of Teesside, a thriving industrial center with its own story to tell.

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Four Seasons’ Private Jet Trips Will Take You to Asia, Africa, and Beyond in 2026

The six 2026 itineraries range from 13 to 21 days and cost between $159,000 and $229,000 per person., rachel cormack.

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“Our goal is to create connections with travelers of this generation and the next, fostering a legacy of transformative experiences that extend far beyond the journey,” Marc Speichert, executive vice president and chief commercial officer of Four Seasons, said in a statement.

The 2026 itineraries range from 13 to 21 days and cost between $159,000 and $229,000 per person. To start planning your trip, visit the Four Seasons website or email the team at [email protected].

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Medjet medical evacuation services explained

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What is Medjet? Exploring Medical Transport and Travel Protection Services

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• Medjet is an annual membership service that coordinates air-medical transport for travelers.
• Medjet is supplemental to travel insurance and international health insurance, not a replacement.
• Medjet memberships are usually annual, but there are short-term plans available for up to 30 days.

You've booked your trip, packed your bags, and purchased travel insurance coverage. It seems like you're ready for your trip, but you might forget important emergency medical coverage.

Travel insurance usually covers medical evacuations to the nearest hospital. But global medical transport companies like Medjet coordinate transfers to the hospital of your choice. It's another way to protect yourself during travel, especially since it's challenging to coordinate care in a foreign country or new state. 

Here's everything you need to know about Medjet, including whether you should become a member before your next trip. 

Medical evacuation coverage

Medjet is an annual membership service that coordinates air-medical transport for travelers. It's different from travel insurance which covers trip cancellations, damage to personal belongings and emergency medical treatment.

Medjet covers medical transport to the hospital of your choice, usually a facility near home. The company arranges the transportation, and your membership fees cover the costs. Members can also add extra protection against security threats like violent crimes and natural disasters. 

Established in 1991, Medjet was the first company to introduce an air-medical transport membership. Other companies like Global Rescue, SkyMed and International SOS offer similar services today. 

Domestic and international coverage

Medjet offers medical transport services domestically and internationally. It transfers you to the hospital of choice if you're hospitalized more than 150 miles from home, whether you're traveling domestically or abroad.

Features and benefits of Medjet membership for travelers

Membership plans and inclusions.

Medjet offers two annual membership levels: Medjet Assist and Medjet Horizon. The memberships have coverage and price differences, but both cover the following situations. 

• Medical transfer between facilities, even if it's not medically required
• Member's choice of medical facility
• No cost for domestic or international transfers
• Translation services, medical referrals and phone consultations with doctors
• Transfer of mortal remains

Medjet plans cost

The cost for Medjet coverage depends on your coverage type, membership term, age, membership level, and if you want coverage for domestic travel only.

For example, a one-year standard Medjet Assist membership that covers all travel within the membership year, with no single trip lasting longer than 90 days out of the country, costs $315. The same membership for Medjet Horizon costs $474. 

Medjet offers discounts for multi-year coverage. Plus, students and academic faculty can qualify for extended time abroad (up to 140 consecutive days per trip) for the same price as a regular membership. Short-term policies are typically cheaper as well. 

Additional services and features

Opting for medjet horizon gives you additional access to the following benefits..

• Ground hospital transfer via ambulance or other vehicles
• Cash advances for in the event of a medical emergency 
• 24/7 security response for threats like violent crimes and natural disasters.
• Crisis response for wrongful detention, blackmail or kidnap
• Access to legal referrals 

Medjet offers Diamond Memberships for travelers aged 75 to 84. The membership includes all of the benefits of MedjetAssist but is limited to one medical transport per year. 

There are also short-term memberships. These memberships include the same benefits as MedjetAssist but are available in 8, 15, 21 and 30-day terms.

Comparing Medjet to traditional travel insurance

Medjet vs. travel insurance coverage.

Medjet provides different coverage from travel insurance. Comprehensive travel insurance usually covers cancellations, trip delays, lost luggage, and emergency medical expenses. 

Medjet solely covers medical transfers and doesn't offer coverage for emergency medical treatments typically provided by travel medical insurance .

It's worth noting that many travel insurance policies offer medical evacuation and repatriation coverage. However, its scope of coverage is limited compared to Medjet and other subscriptions for global medical transport. For example, Medjet doesn't have monetary coverage limits and will transport you to the hospital of your choice rather than the nearest facility. 

Choosing Medjet for your travel protection

Factors to consider when choosing medjet.

These are several important factors to consider before purchasing a Medjet policy.

• Choice of care facility: While traditional travel insurance only pays to get you to the nearest medical facility, Medjet covers transportation to a medical facility of your choice.  It also covers transfers from one facility to another at no additional cost.
• Coverage limits: Unlike travel insurance, Medjet doesn't impose monetary coverage limits, covering the entire cost of medical evacuation. However, it does limit transports to twice per year for individual members under 75.
• Pre-existing conditions: Medjet doesn't have pre-existing conditions exclusions , unlike a travel insurance policy. 
• Your budget: Medjet is an added annual expense, usually in addition to travel insurance. However, unlike travel insurance, you pay a member subscription rather than a premium, so your costs are predictable. 

Ideal users and scenarios

If you identify with one of the following traveler profiles, consider Medjet. 

• Travelers with pre-existing conditions: Since the standard travel insurance policy may have exclusions for pre-existing conditions, Medjet could be a beneficial addition. 
• Frequent travelers: Medjet is ideal for frequent travelers, as the annual membership provides comprehensive coverage for multiple trips.
• Travelers visiting remote destinations: If you're visiting a destination with limited access to quality medical facilities (e.g., remote or less-developed areas), Medjet provides the peace of mind that you'll receive timely and quality health care.

Medjet membership enrollment and utilization

How to enroll in medjet.

You can enroll in Medjet by completing an online application or speaking to a representative at 800-527-7478. The company will ask for membership type, term, type of travel, number of days abroad per trip, and desired plan. In addition, be prepared to provide personal information like your name, contact information, date of birth, and address. After answering those questions, you'll receive a quote on the spot

Accessing assistance during travel

You'll need to call Medjet's emergency hotline for assistance and coverage. They are available 24/7. 

For a medical emergency, contact a Medjet representative at 800-527-7478 (or worldwide collect at 205-595-6626). According to Medjet's website. You'll need to provide the following information: 

• Your name and telephone number
• The policyholder's name
• Location (city, country)
• Brief description of your medical condition
• Your hospital's telephone number
• Attending physician or medical professional name and telephone number.

For a security emergency, call 619-717-8549 (worldwide collect) and have the following information available:

• Your name and telephone number 
• Location (city, country).

Medjet conclusion and final recommendations

Assessing the value of medjet.

Medjet doesn't replace travel insurance or international health insurance. Instead, it fills the coverage gaps and provides a service those policies do not cover. In most instances, medical transport is nice and can drastically reduce stress. But it's not generally medically necessary, except in extreme circumstances.

However, if you're a frequent traveler traveling to a destination with limited medical facilities or have a pre-existing condition, comprehensive medical transport services may be important to you. In that case, Medjet may be a valuable addition to your travel insurance policy.

Medjet FAQs

Medjet primarily focuses on medical transport and evacuation services. However, it doesn't cover medical treatment costs. It complements travel insurance, which typically covers those expenses.

Medjet may offer assistance in non-medical emergencies, such as security and crisis response, depending on the membership plan.

Medical evacuations with Medjet are typically determined based on the member's medical condition and the capabilities of the local healthcare facilities.

Medjet can be a beneficial addition to your travel insurance policy, but it's not a complete replacement. It doesn't cover trip cancellations, lost luggage, or medical treatment costs.

Medjet sets itself apart with its comprehensive global network, range of services beyond basic medical transport, and additional security and crisis response coverage options.

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