role of transport infrastructure in tourism

If you build it, they will come: Why infrastructure is crucial to tourism growth and competitiveness

Tourism is expanding globally, but can infrastructure keep up?

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With international tourist arrivals reaching 1.4 billion in 2018— two years ahead of initial projections —the travel and tourism industry will continue to drive global connectivity. The World Economic Forum’s 2019 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report shows this growth is backed by improving global travel and tourism competitiveness, which stems, in part, from growing aviation capacity, increased international openness, and declining travel costs.

However, the report also shows the need for developing infrastructure, which may not be able to keep up with the additional 400 million arrivals forecasted by 2030 . While infrastructure challenges differ for various regions and levels of economic development, failure to address these challenges may reduce competitiveness, hurting the travel and tourism industry.

Infrastructure—including air, ground, port, and tourism services like hotel rooms and car rental services—plays a vital role in travel and tourism competitiveness, serving as the arteries of the industry. And from a global perspective, infrastructure continues to improve.

Since 2017 , air transport infrastructure is one of the most improved components in the index, with strong growth in scores across most regions, subregions and economic development levels. However, much of this performance has come from growing route capacity and the number of carriers operating. Perceptions of the quality of air transport infrastructure, while better since 2017, have grown more slowly, while most recent airport density figures indicate slightly reduced airport access than before. These results potentially indicate that travel demand and airline growth may eventually outstrip hard-infrastructure capacity. By 2037, the International Air Transport Association projects the number of air passengers could double to 8.2 billion.

The report also shows that global perspectives on the quality and efficiency of ground transport infrastructure and services have remained, on average, near stagnant. Given the projected growth in travel as well as the need for infrastructure to accommodate more tourism-related needs, significant work will be required to bridge multi-trillion dollar investment deficits for airports, ports, rail and roads.

The results could be used to assess the infrastructure readiness of economies by looking at their scores for infrastructure and tourist arrival trends. The figure above compares country subregion and income-level groupings against their growth in international tourist arrivals from 2013 to 2017. It is clear tourism is growing in most subregions and among all income groups, with many above the global rate of growth.

Most of the regions on the right side of the figure above are relatively advanced countries with well-developed infrastructure. As a result, they may have more capacity to handle tourism growth. Moreover, it is also apparent that, despite market maturity, such countries are still welcoming more and more tourists each year. As the figure shows, high-income economies had the largest increase in arrivals, growing faster than the global rate. But while these economies have strong infrastructure, their share of arrivals and growth rates reveals the pressure on their infrastructure.

High-income economies analysed accounted for nearly 65% of arrivals in 2017 and 74.3% of growth in arrivals between 2013 and 2017. Subregions like Southern Europe and Eastern Asia-Pacific have seen rapid growth in arrivals, putting pressure on their more developed infrastructure. Arrivals in Western European countries, which on average, have the best infrastructure in the ranking, might seem to be below the global rate of growth but accounted for nearly one-fifth of global arrivals in 2017, and nearly 14% of the increase globally since 2013.

Northern Europe has experienced some of the fastest growth in arrivals in recent years and had the third-largest improvement in scores for air transport infrastructure since 2017. But its well-developed infrastructure may still come under strain, with this year’s report showing the region’s growth in ground, port and tourist infrastructure was below the global average.

South-East Asia has also experienced strong growth in tourism in recent years, but its near-average infrastructure scores indicate it might lack the capacity to continue accepting tourists. Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia and the Philippines have recently seen a surge in tourism, but, despite improvement in scores, all rank below average for infrastructure.

The regions on the left side of the figure mostly consist of lower-income countries. While these economies do not account for the same volume of arrivals as the more developed regions and countries, they still face capacity issues because their infrastructure is less developed. Nevertheless, due to higher price competitiveness, economic growth and declining travel barriers, many of these countries have also seen some of the biggest percentage increases in arrivals.

Countries in subregions on the upper left-hand quadrant may be at greatest risk of strain due to rapid visitor growth and underdeveloped infrastructure. In particular, this is an issue for South Asia, Western Africa, South America and the Balkans and Eastern Europe. On the other hand, nations on the bottom left-hand quadrant have less tourism growth, though this might be due to their limited infrastructure capacity, among other factors.

How countries deal with their infrastructure will be a crucial factor in their long-term travel and tourism competitiveness. Even nations with developed airports and roads may face strain under growing utilization, which may lead to issues related to quality.

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However, it is also important to note competitiveness relies on far more than just infrastructure. Emerging economies also have more work to do when it comes to improving business environments, addressing safety and security concerns and reducing travel barriers. Natural assets, which attract a significant number of visitors internationally, also need to be better protected. For example, South America and South-East Asia outscore the global average for natural resources by about 27% and 11%, respectively, but score below average for environmental sustainability. Consequently, many countries in these subregions may be at risk of damaging the very assets that make great travel destinations.

In some cases, improvements in one area of competitiveness without progress elsewhere can also lead to issues. For instance, Iceland’s improvement in air connectivity and surging visitor volumes was not matched by price competitiveness and overall tourism capacity, potentially explaining its recent slowdown .

Handling all these issues cannot be the purview of only travel and tourism stakeholders. Improving competitiveness, especially as it relates to travel and tourism, requires a holistic, multistakeholder approach.

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World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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The Integral Role of Transport in Tourism Development

Table of Contents

Have you ever wondered how important transport really is in the world of tourism? It’s not just about getting from point A to point B, but rather how the journey can influence the entire travel experience. In this deep dive, we’ll explore the integral role of transport in tourism development , and how it can make or break a tourist’s adventure.

The lifeline of tourism

Transport is undoubtedly the backbone of the tourism industry. It not only enables the movement of tourists from their homes to their chosen destinations but also enhances the quality of their travel experience. With the evolution of transportation technology, the tourism industry has seen unprecedented growth. Let’s unpack the reasons behind this phenomenon.

Technological advancements spurring growth

Technological progress in transportation, such as high\-speed trains , efficient air travel , and modern highways , has made it possible for more people to travel comfortably and safely. With these advancements, destinations that were once considered remote or inaccessible are now within the reach of the average traveler.

From steam engine s to jet planes

In the past, long journeys were arduous and time-consuming. But today, we can cross continents in a matter of hours thanks to jet planes. The development of the steam engine ignited the first wave of mass tourism by making travel affordable and convenient. Fast forward to today, and we see an industry that has been transformed by each successive transportation innovation.

Impacts on destination choice and travel frequency

With the rise of budget airlines and competitive pricing in the transport sector, tourists have more options than ever. This has not only influenced the choice of destination but also the frequency of travel. People are now embarking on multiple trips per year, which was a rarity just a few decades ago.

Fulfilling the needs of domestic and international tourists

Transport systems cater to a variety of needs for both domestic and international tourists. While domestic travelers might prioritize convenience and cost, international tourists could be more concerned with reliability and comfort. But one thing is common; transport needs to deliver a seamless experience to ensure tourists’ satisfaction.

The quest for seamless travel experiences

For a tourist, the journey begins the moment they leave their home. Efficient transport systems ensure a seamless transition between modes of travel, be it from road to rail or sea to air. This interconnectivity is crucial in providing a hassle-free experience that can make a lasting positive impression on tourists.

Accessibility for all

It’s not just about the speed or luxury of transport; accessibility plays a significant role in tourism transport operations. Ensuring that everyone, including people with disabilities and the elderly, can access and use transportation facilities is vital for inclusive tourism development.

Integrated transport solutions: Enhancing tourist experiences

An integrated transport system is one that combines different modes of transportation to create a cohesive network. This integration is key to improving tourists’ experiences by providing them with a variety of options tailored to their individual needs and preferences.

Case studies of successful integration

Many cities around the world serve as exemplary case studies for integrated transport solutions. For instance, the Swiss Travel System offers tourists an all-in-one ticket for trains, buses, and boats across the country. This type of integration makes travel planning much simpler and allows tourists to experience a destination with greater ease and flexibility.

Challenges and opportunities in integration

While the concept of integrated transport solutions is appealing, there are challenges in its implementation, such as coordination between different transport providers and regional authorities. However, these challenges also present opportunities for innovation and collaboration within the tourism and transport sectors.

Transport’s pivotal role in the tourism ecosystem

Transport doesn’t just move people; it connects cultures, drives local economies, and supports the infrastructure of the tourism industry. When transport systems are efficient, they can enhance the appeal of a destination by making it more accessible and enjoyable for travelers.

Economic impacts of a robust transport system

A strong transport infrastructure can lead to significant economic benefits for a region. It can boost employment, stimulate investment in other sectors like hospitality and entertainment, and lead to overall economic growth.

Environmental considerations

As we marvel at the benefits of transportation in tourism, it’s important to consider the environmental impact . Sustainable transport solutions are increasingly becoming a priority, as they seek to balance the needs of tourism development with the preservation of the environment for future generations.

Transport is not just about the physical movement of tourists; it’s about creating connections, experiences, and memories. As we’ve seen, the growth and development of the tourism industry are inextricably linked to advancements in transport. By valuing accessibility, integration, and sustainability , the transport sector can continue to be a driving force in the flourishing of tourism worldwide.

What do you think? How has your travel experience been influenced by transport systems? Can you envision a future where transport is even more integrated into our tourism experiences?

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Tourist Transport Operations (Road Transport)

1 Tourism Transport System

The Tourist Transport System: A Framework for Analysis
Development of Means of Transport
Road Transport
Rail Transport
Water Transport
Air Transport
Role of Transport in Tourism

2 Establishing Your Own Tourist Transport Business (Planning and Forecasting)

Entrepreneurial Qualities
Entrepreneurial Process
Forecasting Tourist Transport Demand
The Business Planning
Planning of Tourist Transportation
Planning Considerations for Setting Up of Tourist Transport Business
Strategic Planning

3 Required Infrastructure and Capital

Conceptual Introduction to Infrastructure
Infrastructure in Tourist Transport
Well-Equipped Office
Capital Requirements
Funding Options Available for Development of Land Passenger Transport Infrastructure in India

4 Need For Segmentation/Segmentation Techniques

Tourist Market Segmentation
Market Segmentation Approaches
Segmentation For Tourist Transport Operations
Designing Tourist Transport Product

5 Costing and Pricing in Tourist Transport Business

Concept of Costing
Classification of Costs
Demand Assessment for Tourist Transport
Relationship Between Price and Demand
Pricing in Practice

6 Selling in Tourist Transportation

Application of Marketing Mix in Tourist Transport Operations
Sales Strategies
Stages in Sales Strategy Formulation
Personal Selling in Tourist Transport Business
Significance of Personal Selling in Tourist Transport Business
Selling Process in Tourist Transport Operations

7 Tourist Transport Operations – I

Transportation: An Introduction
Customer Care

8 Tourist Transport Operations– II

Managerial Roles
Work Patterns in Tourist Transport Business
Role of Manager to Know Rules and Regulations
Economics of Transport Management
Socio-cultural Awareness of the Area

9 Personnel Management- Recruitment, Training and Briefing

Personnel Management: An Introduction
Recruitment and Selection
Responsibilities and Essential Functions
Briefing and Training

10 Transportation Laws and Regulations

Motor Vehicles Act 1988
The Central Motor Vehicles Rules 1989
Offences Penalties and Procedure

11 Car Rental Agency Operations

Concept of Car Rental Agency
Rent-a-Cab Scheme
Present Scenario of Rent-a-Cab
Identification Features
Marketing of Rent-a-Cab
Considerations for Product Design

12 Managing Leakages

Leakages: A Conceptual Background
Leakages: The Loyalty Factor
Leakages Related to Loss of Opportunity
Leakages: The Integrity Factor
The Honesty Factor
Manipulative Leakages
Leakages through Financial Statements

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The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach

2008, Tourism Management

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Importance of Tourism Infrastructure Development

The Tourism Industry is one of the fastest-growing industries in the 21st century. The Travel & Tourism industry contributed 9.1% to the global GDP in 2023, an increase of 23.2% from 2022.

Like many other industries, the travel & tourism sector also witnessed dramatic transformation during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Although the industry had come to a grinding halt during the global lockdowns, now the industry has returned to normalcy.

Tourism infrastructure is one of the key elements of tourism development. In this post-COVID world, there’s a renewed focus on tourism infrastructure development. What is meant by tourism infrastructure, and what is its relevance?

In this article, we explore more about these questions and discuss how investing in tourism infrastructure can help boost the travel and hospitality industry.

How Infrastructure Affects the Travel and Hotel Industry?

Nowadays travelers are becoming increasingly selective about travel destinations hence a robust tourism infrastructure plays a key role in boosting tourism. The availability of quality infrastructure such as road transport facilities, accommodation and healthcare facilities will increase tourist visits.

Tourist influx results in better development of an area and its facilities, such as roads, parks, museums, public toilets, water & drainage systems.

While there are many development programs organized by the government at a larger level, the local government plays a crucial role in supporting these tourism development initiatives.

Poor tourism infrastructure leads to negative travel experiences and that impacts the reputation of a destination. Places that offer safe, comfortable & enjoyable experiences to tourists will witness rapid growth.

Why Is Tourism Infrastructure Important?

What is the importance of tourism infrastructure? Good tourism infrastructure facilities ensure easy access for tourists to visit various places and an enjoyable stay for them. From good transportation and hotels to clean public spaces and attractions, a well-established infrastructure is paramount for thriving tourism.

We can say that tourism infrastructure is the foundation of the tourism industry. It facilitates comfortable stays, seamless travel and memorable travel experiences for tourists.

Importance of Tourism Development

Tourists bring income to local communities and help in the development of the local economy. Tourism will further enhance the living standards of the region and result in more job opportunities. Tourism development is not just about creating better infrastructure but also about creating new opportunities for locals.

Other than the financial benefits, tourism development helps to preserve cultural heritage and promote overall development of the area.

Benefits of Tourism Infrastructure

Let’s now discuss the major advantages of tourism infrastructure.

Tourism infrastructure has various benefits such as improved quality of life, cultural preservation and increased investment opportunities.

Improved Quality of Life:

Cultural preservation:, investment opportunities:, how does tourism infrastructure affect the economy of a country.

Tourism infrastructure significantly impacts a country’s economic status.

Improved tourism infrastructure results in increased spending in local businesses, such as hotels, restaurants, malls and local shops.

This revenue generation caused by tourists can boost the economy by creating more jobs, and stimulating the growth of many related industries. Moreover, tourism infrastructure development often results in higher foreign investment, further contributing to economic growth.

The Most Important Components of Tourism Infrastructure

The main components of tourism infrastructure are transportation, accommodation, utilities, healthcare, recreational facilities and security.

A solid tourism infrastructure has several key elements.

Transportation:

Accommodation:, healthcare:, recreational facilities:, steps in tourism infrastructure development.

How can we build a robust tourism infrastructure? Here are some steps to follow:

Assessment & Planning:

Investment & funding:, implementation:, management & maintenance:, what is the concept of sustainable tourism infrastructure development.

Ever heard of the term ‘sustainable tourism infrastructure development’? Sustainable Tourism Infrastructure Development focuses on creating tourism facilities and services that have minimum environmental impact. Some initiatives may involve use of eco-friendly materials, minimized energy consumption, construction without harming natural habitats, etc.

Three Stages of Tourism Infrastructure Development

The three stages of tourism infrastructure development are namely exploration stage, development stage and consolidation stage.

Exploration Stage:

Development stage:, consolidation stage:, tourism infrastructure classification s.

Tourism infrastructure can be categorized into three namely:

Primary Infrastructure:

Secondary infrastructure:, tertiary infrastructure:, future outlook: tourism infrastructure.

The future of tourism infrastructure is bright and is brimming with exciting possibilities. The future tourism sector is likely to focus on aspects like sustainability, technology integration, etc. The industry is fast-evolving with concepts like smart cities, eco-friendly living, personalized travel experiences, etc. .Technology is transforming the way people travel. From virtual tours to online booking assistants, technology is making travel easier and convenient for tourists across the globe.

Tourism infrastructure development is not just about creating new roads and buildings, it’s about creating a better community with focus on cultural preservation and sustainable development.

Investments in tourism infrastructure not only benefits tourists but also brings much wealth for local communities.

As we progress into this post-COVID era, the relevance of well-planned, sustainable tourism infrastructure is more crucial than ever before.

For interested people, Westford University College offers a Diploma program in Tourism Management . This program helps students to gain an in-depth understanding of managing projects in the industry and build their strategic planning capabilities internationally.

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Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies: residents’ perspective

Open access
Published: 17 August 2024
Volume 5 , article number 201 , ( 2024 )

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Sanja Kovačić 1 ,
Marija Cimbaljević 1 ,
Vanja Pavluković 1 &
Slobodan Jovanović 2

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Understanding the factors that contribute to tourism competitiveness in developing economies is essential for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers, as these countries still struggle to fully capitalize on their tourism potential. The residents’ perspective, often overlooked in Tourism Destination Competitiveness (TDC) models, is crucial because they are the primary stakeholders who directly experience the consequences of tourism activities in their daily lives. Their positive attitudes can contribute to a welcoming and friendly environment, enhancing the competitiveness of the destination in the global tourism market. Up to now, there have been a few studies that relate residents’ attitudes to tourism destination competitiveness. However, none have focused on developing a tailor-made model for measuring residents’ perspectives on TDC. To develop such a specific model and contribute to the existing theory in this area, our research applied a multi-step approach, including a literature review of existing models, pilot testing for indicator selection, and model validation through CFA. The data were collected through a survey of residents in Serbia, chosen as an example of a developing country. The final model of the study consists of five factors: Natural and Cultural Resources, Quality of Tourist Offer and Infrastructure, Situational Framework of Tourism Development and Management, Destination Perception and Experience, and Pollution, containing 32 indicators. Practical applicability of the model and theoretical contributions are discussed in the paper, as well as the TDC evaluation for Serbia.

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1 Introduction

Tourism plays a crucial role in the economic development of many nations, particularly in developing economies, where it can be a significant driver of growth and employment. Formerly marginalized in the tourism sector, the developing world has now evolved into a key driver of its expansion [ 1 ]. However, advanced nations consistently hold top positions in the World Economic Forum (WEF) Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index. Meanwhile, developing economies express concerns regarding environmental sustainability, human resources, job prospects in tourism, and the prioritization of tourism [ 2 ]. According to Sanches-Pereira and associates [ 3 ], developing countries have yet to fully capitalize on their tourism potential. Therefore, understanding the factors that contribute to tourism competitiveness in developing economies is essential for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers alike.

Numerous studies have explored tourism competitiveness, aiming to comprehend the diverse factors influencing a country’s capacity to attract and retain tourists [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The evaluation of a country’s tourism competitiveness encompasses an analysis of various dimensions, including natural and cultural resources, infrastructure, policy environment, and overall appeal to tourists. The majority of these studies were carried out in well-established destinations and emphasize the viewpoints of tourism experts and industry practitioners, who are deemed to possess the highest level of knowledge regarding management and competitiveness [ 11 ]. Unfortunately, the perspective of residents has been largely overlooked.

Residents, as integral stakeholders, contribute to the co-creation of the destination’s identity, influencing its attractiveness and sustainability. They play a crucial role in shaping the destination’s image and influencing the overall visitor experience. To achieve sustainable and inclusive tourism development in any country, particularly a developing one, and to ensure the overall well-being of local communities, residents’ attitudes towards tourism development should be acknowledged [ 12 ]. Positive attitudes can contribute to a welcoming and friendly environment, enhancing the competitiveness of the destination in the global tourism market. The residents’ perspective is crucial because they are the primary stakeholders who directly experience the consequences of tourism activities in their daily lives. Residents of different destinations may have a different view of what characterizes a good stay and well-being in a destination compared to experts or tourists [ 13 , 14 ]. Unlike tourists, residents tend to have a more complex interpretation of a destination, as it holds greater significance for them beyond being just a vacation spot. For residents, a tourist destination is a social place where they earn their livelihood, interact with community members, utilize resources that influence their living and working conditions, and enjoy natural resources and cultural offerings for their personal well-being. When they have the opportunity to leverage these resources, they actively engage in tourism-related activities by providing services to tourists [ 15 ]. Additionally, these residents possess local knowledge that can enhance the tourist experience by recommending attractions or facilities to visit [ 16 ]. Thus, their role in evaluating destination attributes is significant, as they serve as prosumers—both consumers of local services and co-creators of the tourist experience. Moreover, the evaluation of destination attributes is complex for this group of stakeholders, as their perspectives can significantly impact the residents' quality of life [ 17 ]. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess the key determinants of tourism competitiveness in a developing country from the residents’ viewpoint.

In this context, Serbia was chosen as the research area because it is an emerging tourism destination and a developing economy actively seeking a stronger presence in the global tourism arena. Strategically located in Southeast Europe, Serbia boasts a diverse cultural and historical heritage, abundant tourism attractions, and faces notable developmental challenges, sustainability efforts, and deliberate market positioning. This makes Serbia an interesting area for studying tourism destination competitiveness (TDC). The country holds a relatively modest competitive position globally, ranking 83rd among 140 countries listed in the WEF Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019 [ 2 ]. The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) reported that in 2021, the total contribution of travel and tourism to Serbia’s GDP was 3.6%, and it accounted for 5.4% of employment [ 18 ]. Recognizing tourism as a priority sector, Serbia aims to leverage it for overall economic and social growth [ 19 ]. However, academic studies on TDC in Serbia are scarce and primarily focus on the perspectives of tourism experts and industry practitioners [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no attempt has been made so far to investigate residents’ opinions towards TDC in Serbia. Therefore, this study is significant as it aims to address this gap by developing a tailored competitiveness model that considers Serbian residents’ attitudes toward competitiveness indicators.

Through a comprehensive analysis, the study aims to shed light on the key factors influencing the tourism competitiveness of a developing economy, thereby offering valuable policy recommendations for fostering sustainable tourism development in developing economies. The paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 sets the theoretical framework, Sect. 3 describes the methodology, Sect. 4 presents the main results, Sect. 5 provides a discussion, and Sect. 6 outlines the main conclusions.

2 Literature review

2.1 the role of residents in assessing the competitiveness of a tourist destination.

Tourist destinations that demonstrate the ability to foster economic prosperity or environmental well-being, while also prioritizing environmental conservation and enhancing residents’ quality of life, are likely to positively influence residents’ perceptions of tourism and increase the overall destination’s competitiveness [ 24 , 25 ]. Numerous empirical studies have been conducted to date, applying various TDC models. These studies utilize data on specific destinations to assess the significance of attributes relevant to tourism competitiveness [ 11 , 26 ]. It is unlikely that all these factors have the same impact and significance in shaping the level of competitiveness for different stakeholders within the tourism industry. Nonetheless, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive list of relevant variables and promote research conducted from the perspective of various stakeholders for a thorough understanding of a destination’s competitiveness. The role of residents in assessing destination competitiveness can be approached from different aspects. When managing the competitiveness and development of a destination, it is important to take into account local perspectives, as residents are inherent and deeply engaged stakeholders. Furthermore, the residents’ perspectives become increasingly significant, particularly in organizational aspects, as residents will assume a foundational role in presenting the destination's image, preserving its heritage, and enhancing its attractiveness [ 9 , 27 ].

Research focusing on destination image states that residents’ positive perceptions of the destination image may positively influence their views on the impacts and changes imposed by tourism in the community [ 28 ]. Since destination image serves as a reliable measure of destination attractiveness, it naturally contributes to the destination's competitiveness [ 29 ]. As a result, residents play a crucial role in strengthening the destination image, which is vital for setting the place apart from other destinations [ 9 ]. This, in turn, can increase their intention to support the development of tourism and enhance the destination’s competitiveness. When considering the contribution of communities to promoting tourism development, residents are recognized as both carriers and actors in destination marketing and competitiveness efforts. The competitiveness of a destination encompasses not only its natural landmarks but also its unique cultural and heritage aspects inherent to the locality. Strzelecka and associates [ 30 ] discovered that residents with deeper knowledge and comprehension of natural and cultural resources manifest a stronger sense of place attachment. This indicates that residents perceive various aspects of destination competitiveness that are closely related to the distinctive local environments and accessible resources at destinations. Initially, residents tend to perceive certain characteristics of TDC at a high level, including natural and cultural competitiveness. Ahn and Bessiere [ 15 ] examine that distinctive regional characteristics like contextual and natural competitiveness are valued as crucial tourism assets by residents. Additionally, technological advancements such as mobile applications, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and online information are recognized as significant elements of destination competitiveness. Consequently, practitioners and governments should aim to maximize the utilization of these competitive resources, foster the development of innovative travel products and activities, and create strategies for successful and sustainable destination management. Success for a tourist destination is often measured by various indicators such as the number of tourists, tourism revenue, length of stay, visitor satisfaction, and the destination’s image. However, true success goes beyond these quantitative measures to include qualitative aspects like resident satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and the overall quality of life for those living in the destination.

The connection between competitiveness and success lies in a destination’s ability to balance the needs and expectations of tourists with the well-being of its residents and the sustainability of its resources. A highly competitive destination that attracts many visitors might not be truly successful if it neglects the quality of life of its residents or the preservation of its natural and cultural assets [ 14 ]. Conversely, a destination that prioritizes resident satisfaction and sustainability is likely to achieve long-term success, fostering a supportive community and preserving its appeal for future visitors. Research by Dwyer [ 14 , 31 ] emphasizes the importance of incorporating broader measures of success into the evaluation of destination competitiveness. This includes considering factors such as resident well-being, environmental impact, and socio-cultural benefits.

Bu and associates [ 9 ] analyzed residents’ attitudes toward tourism development, focusing on perceived advantages, experienced effects, and willingness to support tourism initiatives. Their research highlighted residents’ belief in the government’s pivotal role in enhancing a destination’s image and competitiveness. This underscores the need to prioritize enhancing residents’ quality of life and well-being through tourism. Effective destination governance stresses the involvement of residents in the development process [ 32 ] acknowledging their direct experience of tourism's impacts [ 33 ]. Prioritizing residents’ interests is crucial for maximizing benefits from tourism development and fostering sustainable destination growth [ 30 , 34 ]. Detailed insights into residents' perspectives can validate planning processes and promote community-based sustainable development approaches [ 35 ]. Studies indicate that residents may perceive environmental impacts of tourism negatively. Gajdosik and associates [ 33 ] highlighted concerns such as noise pollution, water and air pollution, and issues with parking and construction. On the other hand, Vodeb [ 36 ] emphasized the importance of early engagement with residents in destination development to secure their participation and manage expectations effectively. This collaborative approach ensures that actions align with community interests and receive local support.

The role of residents in shaping the competitiveness of a destination is often underestimated but becomes apparent through their attitudes toward tourists and their impact on enhancing visitor experiences and the overall destination atmosphere. Previous studies have explored residents’ emotional responses and attitudes toward tourists [ 37 ], their behavioral interactions with tourists [ 25 ], and their cognitive assessments of tourism [ 38 ]. Local residents play a crucial role in shaping the visitor experience by actively participating in and contributing to tourism products and services. Positive interactions between residents and tourists contribute to a favorable destination image, thereby increasing competitiveness [ 9 , 27 ]. Tse & Wing Sun Tung [ 25 ] highlight various strategies for policymakers in the tourism sector to foster positive resident-tourist interactions, thereby enhancing destination attractiveness and competitiveness.

Studies also examine how residents act as ambassadors for their destinations, influencing others, including family and friends, to visit their hometowns [ 39 , 40 ]. As reliable informants, residents actively contribute to the uniqueness and attractiveness of their city when recommending it [ 41 ]. Thus, destination management organizations (DMOs) could benefit from involving residents more actively in destination promotion, potentially boosting both competitiveness and effective promotion [ 25 ].

Several studies have examined the economic impact of tourism from residents’ perspectives, revealing that residents typically view these impacts positively [ 42 ]. The competitive attributes of a destination can enhance its economic benefits, particularly when residents effectively utilize local resources [ 43 ]. This perspective suggests that increasing household income can confer a competitive advantage. Residents achieve this through various tourism-related business activities, such as selling handmade goods, running restaurants, and providing services as local travel agencies and guides [ 31 , 44 ].

Research on residents’ perceptions of tourism development and competitiveness primarily focuses on identifying, quantifying, and comparing different attributes that potentially shape perceptions of tourism and its effects [ 33 ]. Bu and colleagues [ 9 ] argue that tourism planners should actively seek input and recommendations from local residents regarding destination management and promotion, thereby evaluating resources as critical factors contributing to competitiveness. Additionally, tourism planning initiatives should offer opportunities for residents to engage in various activities and foster effective coordination among stakeholders.

While it is crucial for destinations to establish long-term competitive strategies aimed at enhancing their ability to offer diverse tourism experiences, it is equally important to understand how local residents perceive the competitiveness of their destination. Most significantly, local residents play an active role in contributing to tourism planning [ 45 ]. Despite this pivotal role, there remains a noticeable gap in the tourism literature regarding the analysis of residents' perceptions of destination competitiveness and their influential role in shaping this process. To address this gap, the present study aims to evaluate the developed model of competitiveness specifically with the local population as the target group. Developing and refining a measurement model tailored to assess residents' perspectives on tourism destination competitiveness involves creating comprehensive frameworks that capture their perceptions across different dimensions such as natural and cultural resources, quality of tourism offerings, infrastructure, management frameworks, and environmental concerns. While literature on residents’ perspectives regarding tourism destination competitiveness is currently limited, this research may prove valuable in conducting studies across developing economies to understand variations in resident attitudes and factors influencing tourism competitiveness.

The paper also outlines key points and highlights the gaps in research regarding the role of residents in evaluating TDC (see Table 1 ). Such research enables tourism planners and policymakers to assess the strengths and weaknesses of destinations [ 23 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], drawing insights from local residents. The objective is to create a model that is tailored to the preferences and perspectives of this target group, thereby promoting the significance of local involvement and participation. Given the dynamic nature of destinations, which evolve over time and undergo continuous change, the primary contribution of the present study is to identify the key determinants and planning factors that residents perceive as crucial for enhancing the competitiveness of their destination.

3 Methodology

The creation of the model is performed in three stages: In-depth literature review, Pilot testing and Model set and validation.

3.1 In-depth literature review

In order to generate a pool of indicators for measuring TDC, a detailed literature review has been done, taking into account the Scopus database in the period of from 2000 to March 2022. A total of 558 papers with the main keywords “destination competitiveness” and “sustainable tourism indicators” were selected for the analysis, while after initial screening, 232 papers were selected as relevant for further analysis. Most of these studies utilized established models for TDC evaluation, particularly relying on well-known models such as the Integrated Destination Competitiveness model [ 50 ] or the Ritchie and Crouch [ 51 ] model, emphasizing the perspectives of tourism experts and industry stakeholders, while overlooking the viewpoint of residents. In the second round of analysis, 12 tourism experts from Serbia reviewed the indicators extracted from relevant papers and removed repetitive and irrelevant items for the analysis of TDC. After a long process of purifying the relevant indicators, a list of 165 indicators was extracted and included in the pilot questionnaire for local communities.

3.2 Pilot testing

Pilot testing was conducted from June to August 2022 via email and standard paper-pen surveys with representatives of local communities in Serbia. Participants were randomly selected from major cities and tourism destinations such as Subotica, Novi Sad, Belgrade, Niš, Leskovac, Zlatibor, and Kopaonik. The pilot research aimed to eliminate any misunderstandings related to the questions and to remove indicators that community members lacked sufficient knowledge to evaluate. Respondents were asked to estimate the relevance of each of the 165 indicators for measuring the tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) of Serbia on a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1—not relevant at all, 5—very relevant). They were also given options to mark 6 if a question was “not well formulated” and 0 if they felt they “didn’t have enough knowledge.”

Indicators were divided into logical groups to facilitate the elimination and evaluation process. Pilot testing was conducted on a sample of 30 representatives of local communities. Typically, preliminary pilot tests are administered to a small set of respondents, with a sample size of about 30 to 50 individuals [ 52 ]. Afterwards, the responses were analyzed, and indicators were ranked based on the mean values of the answers and standard deviations. Indicators with a mean value below 4 and high standard deviations were marked for exclusion from the study. Additionally, any indicators that were unclear or beyond the scope of local knowledge were eliminated. From the initial 165 indicators, 60 relevant indicators were identified for the final stage of the research.

3.3 Model set and validation

3.3.1 participants.

A total of 456 representatives from local communities across Serbia participated in the final stage of the research. For model validation, the sample was divided into two parts: Sample 1 (N = 153 respondents) was used for Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), while Sample 2 (N = 303 respondents) was used for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). In both samples, there were slightly more female respondents. The age range was from 18 to 73 in Sample 1 and up to 75 in Sample 2. The highest number had completed secondary school, followed by those with higher education. Additionally, the majority of the sample were not employed in tourism.

3.3.2 Procedure and research instrument

The field research with the local population of Serbia was carried out from June until December in 2023. A total of 456 respondents from all over Serbia participated in the survey. The largest number of respondents are from Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Subotica, Leskovac, Užice, Kopaonik and Zlatibor, but the sample also includes subjects from the rest of Serbia. One of the primary criteria for conducting the research was selecting cities and tourist regions that play a significant role in Serbia’s tourism industry, offer diverse tourist attractions, and have the potential to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing TDC. The sample selection was random, with the condition that respondents reside in the given city/destination and are above 18 years old.

The survey instrument consisted of 60 items measuring TDC of Serbia, which were extracted in the previous phases of model building, as well as socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The participants were asked to evaluate their agreement with the statements referring to TDC of Serbia on a 5-point Likert scale (1-I totally disagree, 5-I totally agree). The research was conducted using standard paper-and-pen surveys by 10 trained researchers who collected data in the field. Additionally, respondents were offered the option to complete the survey via tablet or mobile phones to accommodate different preferences and ensure maximum reach. Researchers conducted on-site intercept surveys at key locations such as parks, shopping centres, public transportation hubs, tourist attractions, as well as during some local events and gatherings. This involved directly approaching individuals in these areas and inviting them to participate in the survey. In some cases, local tourism organizations helped to distribute the survey and encouraged participation. Small incentives, such as faculty promotional gifts (e.g. pencils, folders, notepads) were offered to encourage participation. Clear and concise information about the purpose of the survey, its importance, and how the data would be used was provided to potential respondents. The survey was anonymous and voluntary, but respondents were asked to provide some basic information such as age, gender and education (Table 2 ). Statistical software IBM SPSS 23 and AMOS were used for data analysis.

4.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)

In order to identify the latent dimensions of Serbia's TDC, EFA was conducted on sample 1 (N = 153 respondents). Item analysis showed a high KMO = 0.923, and the statistically significant value of Bartlett’s sphericity test was confirmed (χ2 = 9896.90, df = 2485, p < 0,000). The analysis of item correlations revealed a significant number of correlations with values above 0.3, which led to the conclusion that the data are suitable for EFA. Items that had factor loadings lower than 0.3 (a total of 10 items) were excluded from the further analysis [ 53 ]. The method of principal components with Promax rotation (due to established correlations between factors) and Kaiser normalization was used to extract factors. As a result, considering only factors whose eigenvalues were equal to or greater than one, five factors were extracted with total of 50 items, which explain 50,56% of the variance. The five identified factors are: F1 Natural and cultural resources, F2 Quality of Tourist offer and infrastructure, F3 Situational conditions for tourism development and management, F4 Destination perception and experience, and F5 Pollution. The results of EFA are presented in Table 3 .

4.2 Confirmatory factory analysis

CFA is used on sample 2 (N = 303 respondents) to validate and confirm the factor structure obtained by EFA. The AMOS program for the Windows operating system was used for CFA. The Mardia index of multivariate kurtosis was above 3 for all tested models, indicating significant multivariate kurtosis. Therefore, it was justified to use robust methods and indices based on this method [ 54 ]. The fit or appropriateness of the model was assessed using the following indices: Sattora-Bentler χ 2 (S-B χ 2 )—if it is insignificant, then the model has a good fit, but since it is sensitive to the number of respondents, it is mostly significant in a greater number of cases, Standardized Root Mean-Square Residual (SRMR), Root Mean-Square Error Of Approximation (RMSEA)—SRMR and RMSEA should be less than 0.08 [ 55 ], Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI)—if the CFI, NFI and NNFI are over 0.90, the model has a good fit [ 56 ]. In order to achieve adequate fit indices, modification indices were used with which AMOS suggests and proposes changes to the model.

When the first model obtained by exploratory factor analysis was tested, satisfactory fit indices were not achieved. First, it was suggested that several items should be excluded because they achieved saturation on several factors simultaneously (8 items in total). Moreover, the items that initially were part of the factor Situational conditions for tourism development and management (The positioning of the country as a tourist destination on the international market is effective, Social networks are effectively used to support the marketing activities) are suggested to be a part of the factor Destination perception and experience.

After these changes, the model was run again, and although the fit indices were visibly improved, a satisfactory fit index was still not achieved. The modification indices now suggested the exclusion of 10 more items. The final modifications related to the addition of correlations between individual items that belonged to the same factors. After these changes, a satisfactory fit model and the final structure of the competitiveness model were achieved. The final model consists of five factors: 1. Natural and cultural resources, 2. Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, 3. Situational framework of tourism development and management, 4. Destination perception and experience and 5. Pollution.

The final fit indices are shown in Table 4 .

The final model is shown in Table 5 , it consists of the five mentioned factors and a total of 32 indicators.

Factor 1: Natural and cultural resources is a factor referring to natural and cultural resources (tangible and intangible) of Serbia. Factor 2: Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure—refers to the quality of tourist infrastructure, signalization and accessibility of destination, including the quality of tourist offer and activities. Factor 3: Situational framework of tourism development and management—refers to the extent to which the conditions in Serbia are favourable for tourism development. This factor also contains items related to sustainability and ethics in tourism, i.e., local community support for tourism development, tourism companies operate in accordance with ethical principles etc. Factor 4: Destination perception and experience—refers to the perception of the brand, the image of Serbia as a tourist destination, destination positioning, but also quality of the overall experience at the destination. This factor also includes an assessment of the possibility of booking services, and the willingness to recommend Serbia as a destination to others. Finally, the last extracted factor is Factor 5: Pollution, referring to the assessment of the noise level, water and air pollution. This factor is of immense importance, as it indicates that local population consider pollution as important element of TDC.

4.3 Descriptive statistics and measurement model validity

Descriptive statistics for all variables are presented in Table 6 . It can be seen that Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for all variables/dimensions is above 0.7. This means that the instruments used in the study are reliable and that they measure the given constructs. The results show that Natural and cultural resources are the best-rated factor in Serbia's competitiveness as a tourist destination, which means that Serbia has rich cultural and natural resources and great potential for tourism development. The lowest rated factor is the Factor 3: Situational framework of tourism development and management, especially the item Political values, the overall political situation and stability in Serbia are favourable for the development of tourism. Only one item in this group exceeds 3.5, which is the residents support the development of tourism. This is followed by factor Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, where the items related to the transport infrastructure and signalization Local tourist and traffic signalization is in line with the needs of tourists, a high-quality air traffic infrastructure and A high quality bicycle and pedestrian paths are the lowest rated together with the item Quality offer of amusement and theme parks. On the other hand, the highest rated item in this group is Diverse and high-quality restaurant offer. The concerning fact is also that Pollution is rated above 3.5 which could negatively influence competitive position of Serbia on travel market.

The data obtained from the research pointed to the basic shortcomings that affect the competitiveness of Serbia as a tourist destination, and they should be the focus of further tourism strategies and initiatives.

Before conducting CFA, convergent and divergent validity of the constructs was calculated to check the measurement model validity. The convergent validity of each dimension was examined by calculating the score of the average variance extracted (AVE, [ 57 ]). A substantial convergent validity is achieved when all item-to-factor loadings are significant and the AVE score is higher than 0.50 within each dimension, but AVE of 0.40 is still acceptable if the composite reliability (CR) is higher than 0.60 [ 58 ]. Results showed that all dimensions had AVE higher than 0.40 and CR higher than 0.60 (Table 6 ) which indicates good convergent validity. Discriminant validity was then checked by comparing the average variances extracted (AVEs) for each latent factor with the squared correlation estimates between latent constructs. Fornell and Larcker [ 57 ] noted that the discriminant validity is guaranteed when the AVEs are greater than the squared correlation estimates (Table 7 ).

5 Discussion

The primary aim of this study was to address significant gaps identified in previous TDC research. These gaps primarily include the lack of consideration for residents’ attitudes towards TDC indicators and the absence of specifically tailored models to assess destination competitiveness in developing countries from the residents' perspective. Existing literature has predominantly focused on residents' perceptions of destination image [ 9 , 28 , 29 ] or place attachment [ 30 , 59 ], but lacked comprehensive models for measuring destination competitiveness. It is evident that residents possess specific knowledge, information, and emotional attachment to their living destinations [ 60 ]. Therefore, assessing competitiveness from their viewpoint requires specific indicators, which may differ in some aspects from traditional TDC models where assessments are typically conducted by tourism stakeholders or tourists. To address these gaps and contribute to theory in this area, our research employed a multi-step approach. This approach included a literature review of existing models, pilot testing for indicator selection, and model validation through CFA. Through this rigorous scientific process, we selected indicators and validated a model structure tailored for assessing residents’ perceptions in developing economies. This model represents the first of its kind in the existing literature on this topic, marking a significant theoretical contribution. The final model of the study comprises five factors: Natural and cultural resources, Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, Situational framework of tourism development and management, Destination perception and experience and Pollution, encompassing 32 indicators. The model is tailor-made through pilot testing, where residents themselves identified indicators, they could assess based on their knowledge, experiences and information levels. Those indicators were further validated through survey research involving another sample of residents, and tested through EFA and CFA.

The application of this model to Serbia, a developing economy, has yielded insightful findings. Previous research has highlighted residents’ significant role in assessing natural and cultural resources [ 30 ] and shaping destination image [ 9 , 28 , 29 ], given their extensive knowledge and role as destination promoters and ambassadors. This aligns with two factors in our model: Natural and cultural resources, and Destination perception and experience. Additionally, our model underscores residents’ crucial role in evaluating the Quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure. Residents often utilize tourism infrastructure extensively [ 61 ], granting them firsthand insights into its quality. Moreover, some residents are directly involved in tourism-related businesses, providing further expertise in this area [ 15 , 44 ]. A novel aspect of our model is the recognition of residents’ capability to assess the Situational framework of tourism development and management. This factor evaluates the conditions favoring tourism development at a destination, a role traditionally fulfilled by tourism stakeholders without residents’ input [ 32 , 45 ]. Furthermore, sustainability factors, crucial for competitiveness in developing countries, receive attention through the Pollution factor, which reflects residents’ concerns about environmental conditions at their destination. This tailor-made model for residents’ assessment of TDC serves as a new tool for enhancing local involvement and participation in TDC assessment, particularly beneficial for developing economies in their early stages of tourism development [ 3 ]. Engaging residents in understanding factors influencing TDC is essential for effective tourism decision-making and planning processes.

Additionally, this study contributes to the limited understanding of residents' attitudes toward TDC in Serbia, marking the first inclusion of their perspectives in the competitiveness assessment. It offers long-term recommendations for integrating residents into the assessment process. The model indicates that Serbia's primary competitive advantage lies in its natural and cultural resources, while significant opportunities for improvement exist in the other four factors. Residents express concerns about the Situational framework of tourism development and management, particularly noting political stability as a factor negatively impacting destination competitiveness. They also highlight areas needing improvement in the Quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure. Pollution emerges as another concern, with residents indicating room for enhancing environmental sustainability to bolster Serbia's competitive position. A detailed analysis of each factor's components provides valuable insights for destination managers regarding residents' perceptions of the current state of TDC, identifying major gaps and advantages.

6 Conclusion

Numerous empirical studies have utilized various models to assess TDC predominantly from the perspectives of tourism experts and industry practitioners, often overlooking the viewpoint of residents. Establishing a comprehensive list of TDC variables and promoting research that incorporates perspectives from diverse stakeholders are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of TDC. Notably, destinations that successfully foster economic prosperity and environmental conservation while enhancing residents' quality of life tend to positively influence residents’ perceptions and overall TDC. This study focuses specifically on developing economies, which face unique challenges and opportunities in tourism development. The model developed is tailored to these contexts, providing insights that are more relevant and applicable to similar countries, thereby enhancing the theoretical framework of TDC in these regions.

To date, several studies have highlighted the significant role of residents, among other stakeholders, in comprehending and enhancing destination competitiveness. Their active involvement contributes to enhancing the destination's image, preserving its heritage, and increasing its overall attractiveness. Moreover, positive resident perceptions of the destination’s image can improve their attitudes towards tourism impacts and changes, thereby enhancing overall competitiveness. Success in tourism goes beyond mere quantitative metrics such as tourist numbers and revenue; it encompasses qualitative factors like resident satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and overall quality of life. Hence, achieving a balance between the needs of tourists, the well-being of residents, and the sustainability of resources is critical for long-term success. Integrating residents’ attitudes provides a more holistic view of TDC and acknowledges the pivotal role of the local population in shaping a welcoming and hospitable environment.

Finally, by understanding residents' perceptions across various dimensions such as natural and cultural resources, tourism offerings, infrastructure, management frameworks, and environmental aspects, tourism planners and policymakers can better assess the strengths and weaknesses of destinations. Encouraging local involvement and participation in tourism planning is vital, given the dynamic nature of destinations. This research helps identify the key determinants and planning factors that residents perceive as important for the competitiveness of their destination, highlighting the significance of local involvement in shaping successful and sustainable tourism development. The final model in this study consists of five distinct factors: Natural and cultural resources, Quality of tourist offer and infrastructure, Situational framework of tourism development and management, Destination perception and experience, and Pollution. These factors provide a comprehensive framework for assessing TDC from a residents' perspective, which can be used as a benchmark for future studies.

7 Practical implication

The practical application of the model lies in the fact that it is made to be used for the continuous evaluation of destination competitiveness by residents in developing economies. This could be performed as a regular research procedure of local or regional tourism organisations that could include residents in assessing destination competitiveness together with other important target groups such as tourism stakeholders and tourists. The model highlights the importance of community engagement in tourism development. By fostering positive attitudes among residents, destinations can enhance their attractiveness and competitiveness in the global market. The model provides a structured framework for evaluating TDC, which can be used by researchers and practitioners to benchmark performance and identify areas for improvement. Policymakers can use the model to understand residents' attitudes towards tourism, enabling them to create policies that align with local needs and preferences. This can lead to more sustainable and accepted tourism development strategies. Industry stakeholders can utilize the insights from the model to enhance the quality of tourist offerings and infrastructure, ensuring they meet both resident and tourist expectations. This can improve overall satisfaction and competitiveness. By considering factors such as pollution and the situational framework of tourism development, the model encourages sustainable practices that benefit, the environment, the local community, and visitors. It should be also emphasized that TDC is a multi-faced concept and its assessment requires the involvement of all important stakeholders at the destination in order to get a concrete pathway to increasing tourism competitive position on the market. The involvement of the local population in evaluating competitiveness may necessitate significant shifts in attitudes toward tourism planning, development, management, and destination marketing. Anticipated outcomes include a broader understanding of the factors contributing to destination competitiveness and clearer insights into the population’s role in this process. Developing a model to measure residents’ perspectives on tourism competitiveness ensures greater relevance to the diverse realities of various destinations, considering that the validation and adaptation of existing models might be less effective across different cultural and geographical contexts. The practical benefits of the application of the model are numerous. However, the most important is the fact that measuring residents’ attitudes about destination competitiveness is essential for creating a balance between the economic benefits of tourism and the well-being of the local community. It allows for sustainable development, positive destination branding, and the creation of an overall positive experience for both residents and visitors.

Based on the research findings, we propose several recommendations for policymakers to enhance Serbia’s TDC:

Engage residents: Involve residents in tourism planning and decision-making processes, as well as in TDC assessment, to foster more sustainable and accepted tourism development strategies.

Utilize the new model: Apply the newly developed model tailored to capture residents’ TDC assessments in developing economies, gaining comprehensive insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the destination from a local perspective.

Regular monitoring: Implement a regular monitoring system using this model to track changes in TDC over time, helping to identify trends, policy impacts, and areas needing improvement.

Focus on quality improvement: Address residents' concerns regarding the quality of tourism infrastructure and services. Improvements in these areas can enhance both resident and tourist satisfaction, boosting overall competitiveness.

Address environmental concerns and promote sustainability: Recognize environmental sustainability as a key competitiveness factor. Implement measures to reduce pollution and improve environmental conditions, responding to residents’ concerns and enhancing the destination’s appeal. Encourage sustainable tourism practices that benefit both the environment and the local community.

Improve tourism development conditions: Address residents’ concerns about the situational framework of tourism development, particularly regarding political stability and favourable conditions for tourism growth, to significantly enhance the destination’s competitiveness.

Strive for sustainable development: Ensure that tourism development strategies balance economic benefits with the well-being of the local community. This includes considering residents’ satisfaction, environmental sustainability, and overall quality of life in tourism planning and development

8 Limitation and further research

The current study also has certain limitations. Firstly, the model has been tested in one developing economy (Serbia) chosen as a case study to conduct initial research. The model should be applied and replicated in other developing economies to confirm and validate the structure and prove the comparability of results obtained in various developing economies. Secondly, since this was an initial study aimed at creating a new model, the research was conducted only once. Continuous monitoring and longitudinal studies are necessary to track progress and draw conclusions about changes in destination competitiveness. Longitudinal studies play a crucial role in evaluating TDC by offering insights into trends, policy impacts, and causal relationships over time. Such information is vital for making informed decisions, especially in developing economies where understanding the long-term effects of tourism policies and interventions is critical.

Future research should also examine the impact of certain independent variables (such as their active engagement in tourism, tourism and pro-environmental attitudes etc.) and sociodemographic characteristics on residents’ perceptions of TDC. It would be also beneficial to reshape, modify and test the model for different target groups such as tourists or tourism stakeholders to enable a holistic approach to TDC research in developing countries.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files Ethics approval: The consent of the Ethics Commission of the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Science, is not required for the collection of data for the purpose of scientific research through survey research, in accordance with Article 7 paragraph 2 of the Code of Academic Integrity of the Faculty of Science, University of Novi Sad number: 0601-351/5. All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this article.

Code availability

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia, GRANT No. 7739076, Tourism Destination Competitiveness—Evaluation Model for Serbia—TOURCOMSERBIA. Also, the authors acknowledge financial support of the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 451-03-66/2024-03/ 200125 & 451-03-65/2024-03/200125).‬‬‬‬‬

This research was supported by The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia, GRANT No. 7739076, Tourism Destination Competitiveness—Evaluation Model for Serbia—TOURCOMSERBIA. Also, the authors acknowledge financial support of the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 451-03-66/2024-03/200125 & 451-03-65/2024-03/200125).‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

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Kovačić, S., Cimbaljević, M., Pavluković, V. et al. Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies: residents’ perspective. Discov Sustain 5 , 201 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00416-x

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Need to write an essay on the role of transport in tourism? This essay example focuses on the issue. Learn more about the role of transport in tourism, economy, and social development.

Introduction

Role of Transport in Tourism Development

Reference List

The growth and development of tourism depends on transportation to a great extent. Although transportation and tourism development are, nevertheless, this paper has tried to demonstrate that the relationship between these two issues is somewhat controversial owing to the many schools of thought that are available.

Nevertheless, new technologies in transportation has greatly improved tourism sector. The development of these newer technologies has come about because there is a growing demand for newer, faster and more efficient modes of travel.

Development in transportation impacts on the mobility of individuals, not to mention that it influences their demand and motivation (Duval 2007).

On the other hand, transportation may also impact negatively on tourism development owing to the issues of pollution, destruction of the environment and wildlife, and congestion. The paper attempts to examine the role of transportation in tourism development.

The Role of Transportation in Tourism

The role played by transportation in tourism development remains controversial mainly because there are various schools of thoughts regarding its role in comparison with development.

Some schools of thought have for example sought to categorize the role of transportation in tourism into negative, positive, and neutral. With regard to the positive perspective, transportation is seen as a key driver of the tourism industry.

On the other hand, the neutral perspective holds that transportation facilities may not yield productive tourism activities on their own.

In contrast, the negative point of view seeks to examine circumstances under which transportation might lead to an in the spread of disease, increased migration, or a reduction in per capita income levels (Musa & Ndawayo 2011).

Many scholars have expressed conflicting views on the issue of the role of transportation in tourism development, but most of them prescribe to the base structure described above.

Nevertheless, there is compelling evidence to support the claim that transportation plays a crucial role in the development of the tourism industry in any given economy.

At the same time, there are many common interests shared by both the transportation and tourism sectors. As such, the two sectors appear to be somewhat interdependent (Musa & Ndawayo 2011).

As the tourism industry expands, this interdependence begins to become more apparent, not least because the sector plays a key role in the economic development of a country.

A lot of scholars contend that the infrastructure base of any nation acts as a determining factor of how attractive tourist destinations in such a country are. With regard to specific transport infrastructure, charged with the responsibility of offering vital transportation services, we can rightly assume that transportation plays a key role in this respect.

In their work, Khadarooa and Seetanahb (2008) have identified the role played by transportation network in the growth of a country’s tourism sector. They see transportation network as a vital ingredient for the successful development of the tourism sector.

The authors have further noted that transport is a key component in our quest to create and develop successful new tourist attractions sites.

Transportation is also important in terms of promoting the growth and development of existing tourist destinations. It is important to note that by providing ideal transportation services to hitherto dead centers for tourist attraction, we are likely to transform them into active and successful; tourist destinations and in the process, we could end up witnessing multitudes of people paying visits to such sites every year.

Prideaux (2000) has also recognized the role played by transpiration infrastructure in tourism development. Even as many authors have recognized the importance of efficient transport as a prerequisite for the successful implementation of a tourism development program, there is not much work that has been carried out to explore the role played by transportation in tourism development.

Only a limited number of researchers have dedicated their research to studying the impact of transportation on tourism development.

Majority of the tourism studies appear to define the link between tourism and transport with regard to the issuer of accessibility. In this case, transport acts as a link between on the one hand, tourist destination centers and on the other hand, tourist generating centers.

A number of authors have explored the historical background of tourism within the context of how different modes of transportation have been developed over the years.

Others have deemed it necessary to view transportation from an interdisciplinary approach, in which case it acts as one among several elements which when combined forms the tourism system (Palhares 2003, p. 405).

A number of researchers have also developed and tested various models of tourism flows, although the role of transportation has been quite limited.

We also have other scholars who views transportation form the geographical context and examine the flow of tourists between rural and metropolitan destinations.

Tourism involves a lot of travelling and in this case, transportation links tourists with different tourist destinations, in addition to ferrying goods and services.

As such, transportation plays a crucial role in tourism development. In a bid to demonstrate that tourism and transportation are interconnected, we need to realize that once transportation in a given tourism region has been improved, we end up expanding tourism in such a region.

We have a number of scholars who view transportation as part of the larger tourism system which plays a key role in ensuring that tourists get to the desired destinations.

This means that transportation is seen as only a means to enable such tourists to get to the desired tourist destination and once they are finished with their expeditions, they are ferried back to their place of residence.

According to Page and Lumsdon (2004), the system of transport available at a given tourist destination affects the experience of tourists, and this may perhaps explain the manner in which people decide to travel, as well as their choice of holiday destinations, types of holiday, and mode of transport.

The development of tourist destination relies heavily on transport networks. This is the case especially with regard to the issues of connectivity and accessibility (Duval 2007).

As such, the scope and pattern of tourism is eventually determined by the degree of connectivity and accessibility within a given transport network.

For example, the United States is a key market of tourist destinations in New Zealand. The host country has benefited from the non-stop and long-haul air services that the US provides.

In the same way, the United States operates nonstop air flights from key urban areas such as New York and Washington, D.C to the Caribbean, another tourist destination.

This is a clear indication that as the efficiency and availability of transportation increases, so does the number of tourists to a given destination.

Some tourist destinations have largely remained unpopular in the past simply because they could not be accessed easily as the transport infrastructure was either unavailable or very poorly developed (Sorupia 2005).

However, with improvements in transportation, coupled with reduced transportation costs, accessibility to such areas has increased dramatically. In the process, such areas have continued to attract a large number of tourists all year round.

It is important however to remember that the level of accessibility to tourism sites will differ depending on the state of the existing transport infrastructure, nature of the site, as well as how efficient the public transport system in use is.

Transportation could also impact negatively on tourism development. For example, it could pose a threat to the environment and consequently, hinder tourism development.

With regard to land transportation, both road and rail transport affects the habitat and by extension, the wildlife. This is because the two mode of transport traverse natural areas, in effect dividing hitherto contiguous areas.

In addition, emissions from air and road transport remain by far the most widespread sources of greenhouse gasses (Peters 2000).

Noise and air pollution in the form of engine noises from motor vehicles, planes, overhead cable carts, and constructions can all have negative ramifications on wildlife, thereby impacting negatively on the tourism sector.

Moreover, pollution also affects the natural habitat and may end up driving tourists away as the tourist destination in question is no longer attractive.

On the issue of access and modes of transport, it is important to note that both tourism and accessibility could be connected with the degradation levels of a given tourist destination.

Some of the matters arising from such an association include the impacts per capita, carrying, as well as visitor management. The way in which we are able to manage these issues is an indication of the mode of tourism that the community, the government, and the operator advocate for (Page & Lumsdon 2004).

Therefore, accessibility can ensure the success or failure of a destination. One school of thought regarding this argument is that with a lot of people are likely to frequent a given tourist destination as accessibility increases.

Consequently, the level of degradation increases, thereby affecting the state of natural resources. Another argument considers the ratio of host population to that of visits and the type and level of the impact created.

It is important to ensure that such a ratio is maintained at a level that the local community is comfortable with in order to avoid any emerging conflict on the issue of resources allocation.

As the number of tourist visiting a given tourist destination increases, we are likely to witness increased rail and road congestion, not to mention the rise of air, road and noise pollution levels.

In case the existing infrastructure is not sufficient to accommodate this increase, conflicts could emerge. Besides, an increase in the number of tourists would affect the environment and wildlife as well.

Although a lot of scholars have recognized the importance of efficient transport as a prerequisite for the successful implementation of a tourism development program, only a handful of studies have been dedicated to researching on the role of transportation in tourism development.

There is a controversy surrounding the role of transportation in tourism development as there are divergent schools of thought regarding the issue in question.

The schools of thought have sought to explore the positive, negative, and neutral role played by transportation in as far as tourism development is concerned.

Nonetheless, both the transportation and tourisms sectors share some common interest and for this reason, they are interdependent. Transportation affects the mobility of tourists, in addition to influencing their demand and motivation to visit a certain tourist destinations.

The successful development of new tourist destinations depends heavily on the accessibility and connectivity of the existing transport network.

Transportation is also important in terms of promoting the growth and development of existing tourist destinations. On the other hand, transportation leads to pollution, and this can affect both the wildlife and the natural habitat, thereby driving tourism away.

Also, improved transportation can result in massive migration, with a resultant increase in population and congested transport system. This may bring about conflict between the hosts and the tourists.

Duval, D, 2007,Tourism and transport: modes, networks and flows, Channel View Publications, Bristol Khadarooa, J & Seetanahb, B, ‘The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach’, Tourism Management, vol. 29, pp. 831–840.

Musa, I & Ndawayo, B,’ The role of transportation in the development of tourism in Nigeria’, An international multidisciplinary journal of tourism, vol. 6, no.1, pp. 297-305 Page, S & Lumsdon L, 2004, Tourism and transport: Issues and agenda for the new millennium, Elsevier, Boston.

Palhares, GL 2003, ‘The Role of Transport in Tourism Development: Nodal Functions and Management Practices’, Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 403–407.

Peters, D, 2000, A sustainable transport convention for the new Europe. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London.

Sorupia, E 2005, Rethinking the role of transportation in tourism, http://www.easts.info/on-line/proceedings_05/1767.pdf

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This paper examines the impact of air infrastructure development on emerging insular destinations by focusing on Akureyri, located in North Iceland. It examines the intricate relationship between airport infrastructure capacity expansion, the building of human capacity, hospitality infrastructure growth, and seasonality challenges. Through extensive qualitative interviews and literature reviews from stakeholders, policymakers, and academics, the research synthesises how an airport expansion offers democratisation of tourism mobilities and connectedness with the outside world for remotely located communities in the region. The analysis found that despite the stakeholders’ increased awareness of the complexities in accommodating year-round tourism, there is a readiness to increase the tourism enterprise flows. Nevertheless, the study shows a high deficit in hospitality infrastructure along with regional investment imbalances, revealing the lack of a comprehensive capacity building strategy. Ultimately, the authors advocate for an ‘extended capacity’ approach to tackle the challenges presented in the process of overcoming seasonality issues. The paper stresses the need for developed human skill capacity and diversified services and products alongside infrastructure capacity upgrades. The gained insights are gathered in two figures. The first identifies and maps the contextual landscape encompassing North Iceland’s tourism industry and its stakeholders, while the other showcases the complexity of the process the destination undergoes for breaking seasonality, while exposing the interconnections of potential outcomes, stakeholders’ needs, and the existing and in process capacities.

Introduction

In the current globalised world, the attention directed towards the development of region-based tourism has gained significant momentum (Qu et al. , 2023) . This heightened focus is particularly pronounced in remote tourism destinations seeking greater visibility and prominence within the industry (Bjarnason , 2014 , 2021) . Certain insular and archipelagic locations are disrupting the market thanks to an increased public interest “in the environment and in tranquil, less developed areas such as coastal settings which are still pristine for tourism purposes” (Agius et al. , 2021 , p. 149) . In this regard, Iceland stands as a dynamic insular destination characterised by a landscape shaped by frequent volcanic eruptions and natural calamities (Ágústsdóttir , 2015; Ólafsdóttir & Dowling , 2013; Sæþórsdóttir et al. , 2019) . Historically reliant on fisheries for sustenance and economic stability, the nation faced a profound economic downturn following the Great Recession of 2008. This downturn, marked by the devaluation of the Icelandic Króna (ISK) (Jóhannesson et al. , 2010) , paved the way for an incessant surge in tourism demand, leading to a significant national dependence on the tourism economy (Macheda & Nadalini , 2019) . The enthusiastic influx of visitors, backed by robust governmental intervention for tourism development, resulted in a staggering fivefold increase in international arrivals between 2010 and 2017 (Gamma , 2018) . Traditionally, Keflavík Airport (KEF) has served as Iceland’s primary international gateway handling approximately 98.5% of all international flight arrivals (Icelandic Tourist Board , 2019 , 2023) . Meanwhile, smaller airports like Akureyri Airport (AEY) and Reykjavik Airport (RKV) have predominantly facilitated domestic connections (isavia.is , 2022) . However, national air travel underwent notable shifts in early 2022 when the airline company Niceair announced its intention to initiate international flights to and from AEY following runway expansion and the addition of an international gate at the airport. Despite its promising kick-start, the company faced insolvency within a year, prompting the competitor IcelandAir to announce a direct connection between KEF and AEY (IcelandAir , 2023) . This manuscript advocates that airport expansion and consequent regional development entails negative as well as positive factors. Gössling and Higham (2021) highlight the evolving approach to global tourism development with heightened awareness among travellers, stakeholders, and policymakers regarding the adverse environmental impacts of air transport. A main limitation is that delving into the increasing airline traffic emissions is out of the scope of this research. The study aims to envision North Iceland’s imminent tourism development as an emerging insular destination with Akureyri serving as its pivotal transit hub and service centre.

Literature Review

The never ending story of perceived destination development.

Academic discourse has persistently sought to define a tourism destination encompassing its development stages (Butler , 1980) , performance dynamics (Haldrup & Larsen , 2009) , and concurrent strategies for self-promotion (Lew , 2017) . An emerging destination corresponds to an industrial district with a multi-scale group of characteristically homogeneous places conceived as micro destinations where the entire community is influenced by corporate decision-making strategies (Rodríguez & Raúl , 2018) . Policymakers and stakeholders tend to give weight to the construction of ancillary elements like hospitality facilities and robust infrastructures as primary tools for the ultimate flourishment of the area (Laws , 1995; Mazzola et al. , 2022) . Howie (2003) further stresses that a destination is characterised by accommodations, primary services, and transport to and from different attractions. The ramifications of destination development extend beyond a mere open system catering to the destination itself including increased employability, improved infrastructure, and year-round tourism (Dalimunthe et al. , 2020; Gamor & Mensah , 2021) . Effective destinations are considered “amalgams of tourism products offering an integrated experience” where accessibility to the place, activities, events, and tailored customer services are available on-site (Buhalis , 2000 , p. 2) . The importance of developing products and services is also exacerbated by Anholt (2007) and Turok (2009) , who emphasise the need for diversification in the burgeoning tourism sector on micro and macro economies. Pike et al. (2016) further underline the need for meticulous management strategies accompanying every product development, ensuring the potential long-term fostering of a strong tourism destination image. Analyses of tourism policies have underscored the potential positive and negative impacts on host communities, the latter often connected to mismanagement (Leiper , 2000) . Ritchie and Crouch (2003) call for a strategic approach wherein destinations avert mismanagement by concurrently developing infrastructures and services, leveraging contemporary and progressive management strategies to favourably compete with more sustainably successful counterparts. The development of tourism destinations remains under scrutiny as questions about their ability to effectively address capacity management and regenerate existing resources persist (Santana et al. , 2022) . Capacity building could tackle critical capacity issues among the community (Moscardo , 2008) . In this context, destination management organisations (DMOs) must cultivate human capacity, diversify approaches, and understand the perspectives on seasonality of tourism actors (Getz & Nilsson , 2004; Medina et al. , 2022; Novelli , 2017) . Innovative thinking and transitioning existing goods and services serve as essential assets to tackle seasonality issues and control incoming arrivals, particularly in peripheral and emerging destinations where product and market diversification wield significant influence (Pham et al. , 2018) . Wyckoff (2014 , p. 2) exerts direct influence on creating “quality places” where people are inclined to live, learn, work, and engage in recreational activities.

Complexities to Breaking Seasonality

Seasonality is characterised as a “temporal imbalance” (Butler et al. , 2001 , p. 5) inherent in the ebb and flow of tourism activities, measurable through statistical analyses encompassing visitor numbers, expenditure, transport patterns, employment rates, and admission to attractions. Scholars and policymakers alike have grappled with the challenge of sustaining tourism activities across seasons (Butler , 1998) . In addition to the phenomenon’s effects on the economy and society, furthering research on seasonality is crucial as new insights, for example via quantitative studies, could offer optimisation tools (Medina et al. , 2022) . Cesarani and Nechita (2017) found that seasonality, accessibility, and competitiveness disrupt traditional service models in rural destinations. Despite concerted efforts by tourism stakeholders to design collaborative strategies, spreading events across the year to attract visitors during low seasons, seasonality remains a formidable challenge for emerging tourism destinations in particular (Butler et al. , 2001) . Central concerns revolve around the substantial alterations in the lifestyles of residents, ensuring consistent access to amenities and preserving overall well-being (Dodds & Butler , 2019; Gil-Alana & Huijbens , 2018) . Levin (1999 , p. 2003) characterises tourism as a complex, non-linear, and adaptable system where the internal and external environments and factors defy predictability. In insular destinations, extreme climates and remoteness present formidable natural factors that exacerbate the challenges of adaptation (Baum & Lundtorp , 2001; Senbeto & Hon , 2019) . Santana et al. (2022) established the need to focus on emerging coastal destinations and evaluate adverse effects by stipulating innovative solutions for connectivity. The importance of favourable connections to the outside world is underscored by Ólafsdóttir and Dowling (2013) and Koo and Papatheodorou (2017) who advocate for infrastructure development in order to stimulate interest in tourism and foster economic development. Numerous studies highlight the significance of air transport and confirmed that airports positively influence connectivity, local retention, social inclusion, and economic prosperity (Alamineh et al. , 2023; Florida et al. , 2014; Kanwal et al. , 2020; Ke & Baker , 2022; Nguyen , 2021; Smyth et al. , 2012) leading the local population to positively perceive and support airport infrastructure due to such benefits (Caballero Galeote & García Mestanza , 2020; Halpern & Bråthen , 2011; Song & Suh , 2022) . Bianchi and Stephenson (2013) in comparison with Higgins-Desbiolles and Bigby (2022) remark the democratisation of tourism mobility and stress the rights of local residents in such developments. Additionally, Zhang and Xie’s (2023) study shows that airports promote urban economic growth, compared to cities without such infrastructure. The higher the amount of connections between an airport and its surroundings, the higher the potential benefits for an entire region (Lee et al. , 2021) , in particular in peripheral, small, or mid-scale areas where the improvement of market accessibility is directly dependent on the expansion of outputs, exports, and investment scales (Chen et al. , 2021; Lee et al. , 2021; Mazrekaj , 2020) .

Methodology, Method, and Social Arenas Mapping

This study adopts the social constructivist research paradigm, aiming to construct realities shaped by multiple paradigms. Tourism stakeholders and actors participating in the study contribute to socially constructed knowledge (Guba & Lincoln , 1994) . The research follows an inductive approach, inspired by grounded theory guidelines outlined by Peters (2010) . Utilising mixed qualitative methodologies, the researchers conducted a total of fifteen qualitative interviews informed by systematic literature review principles (Jahan et al. , 2016) . Integrating these methods enhances reliability and trustworthiness through triangulation achieved in a thematic analysis (Richards & Richards , 1991) and a comparative analysis across methodologies (Glaser & Strauss , 1967) . The research commenced with an extensive review of literature followed by a destination analysis that formed the foundation for developing a detailed Social Arenas Map inspired by Clarke (2011) . This process involved identifying and mapping the contextual landscape encompassing North Iceland’s tourism industry, its stakeholders, and the country’s overall tourism development related settings during the research period. This multifaceted approach aimed to delineate the non-human elements, companies, and individuals directly or indirectly involved in tourism development. Moreover, it facilitated an exploration of power relations, influence, and contributions to the emerging destination’s progress, which emerged during stakeholder interviews, allowing for new thematic elements to surface. To illustrate the stakeholder landscape, the researchers conducted both a destination analysis and carried out a stakeholder mapping (Nicolaides , 2015) . While initial assumptions are inherent in the onset of any research project (Hesse-Biber , 2017) , it is imperative to regard the Social Arenas Map as the authors’ representation of observed reality contextualised within the respondents’ environment (A. Clarke & Robertson , 2001) . The chosen inductive approach has enabled the manuscript to evolve subjectively throughout the research process (Bryman , 2008) .

Source: Compiled by authors (2023).

Interviewing Process

The interviewing process took place over two periods, encompassing a total of fifteen participant-tailored interviews. The first period occurred from February to April 2022, followed by a second round in July and August the same year (see overview in Table 1 ). During the initial phase, interviews were conducted with residents residing in Akureyrarbær (Municipality of Akureyri). They participated under the condition of anonymity regarding their names and specific employment occupations as requested under ethical guidelines. Each interviewee was apprised of the research scope and purpose and provided consent for recording (American Anthropological Association , 1998) . These participants represented communities from Akureyri, Grímsey, and Hrísey, contributing diverse perspectives shaped by the varying nuances of tourism development across the area. The first round of interviews took place at specific locations in North Iceland, whereas the subsequent round utilised web conference software for convenience. The choice of interview locations during the initial round aimed to contextualise and justify methodological interviewing decisions based on the respective work areas of the participants. The second round involved interviews with stakeholders deeply entrenched in regional tourism directly or indirectly linked to the expansion of AEY. These stakeholders offered nuanced insights into North Iceland’s regional tourism development, providing critical perspectives stemming from their extensive knowledge and occupations within the field.

A final composition of both stakeholders and local tourism actors led the researchers to a concise representation of perspectives from a wide range of professionals and residents on proceeding infrastructural and tourism development-related processes. All interviews were recorded and transcribed, and the data sets underwent a thematic analysis, which allowed for a coding process through a simplified data reduction strategy (Saldaña , 2015) .

The analysis of primary data collections obtained through desktop research unveiled the disparities among Iceland’s north and south, the intricate dynamics of infrastructure development and the complexity of emerging destinations to position themselves in the global tourism agenda. The Icelandic government has invested six hundred million ISK in augmenting the infrastructural capacity of Akureyri and Egilsstaðir airports to carry the expected tourism flows (Ćirić , 2020) . The project can be conceived as a bottom-up initiative which was then supported by national authorities and turned into a top-down strategy. The construction reaffirms the centrality of infrastructure for destination development (Dalimunthe et al. , 2020) . As a matter of fact, our data uncover a critical factor intrinsically linked to both infrastructure development and regional tourism: the pivotal role of air transport as a security imperative. Iceland, characterised by its dynamic geological features and frequent volcanic eruptions, possesses a distinctive landscape that shapes communities and ecosystems as well as posing challenges (Ágústsdóttir , 2015; Ólafsdóttir & Dowling , 2013) . Stakeholders underline the significance of secure air transport in the face of potential disruptions while highlighting the vulnerability of KEF’s location and emphasising the need for alternative sites like AEY for emergency landings:

Now [August 2022] we have these volcanic eruptions. What happens if something disturbs KEF? The importance of seeing that Akureyri [AEY] can be a place where you have the security of being able to get planes down and having space for them, which is a problem today because we can have three planes at the same time, while with the expansion, the situation would improve a lot to handle eventual emergencies and special cases. (Hjördís)

To this complexity and the advanced handling of emergencies in exceptional situations, María Helena adds:

This is a matter of security for international flights and for Icelandic flights, as this is a reserve airport. Last summer there were seven private jets at the airport, which means that not one flight can be diverted to AEY because there is no space on the apron. What if KEF closes and there are ten jets coming and they need to land because of fuel shortage.

Both interviewees identify Iceland’s flight network vulnerability, pinning significant reliance on KEF for international flights while underlining AEY’s potential in emergency situations. Despite the recognition of air infrastructure’s importance, María Helena underscores that several factors impede efforts to bolster air transport and expand airport capacities: “Remote locations like Akureyri struggle with fuel costs and complex landing procedures due to its deep valley location, necessitating specialised pilot training and higher operational costs.” The interviewee’s insights highlight the multifaceted challenges of improving air infrastructures, acknowledging the complexities beyond mere expansion desires, such as geographical constraints and financial burdens, which affect the region’s competitiveness and operational viability in attracting more tourists on a year-round basis (Baum & Lundtorp , 2001; Bjarnason , 2021) . Hjaltí from Visit North Iceland stresses the challenge of explaining ‘the job to the state,’ which nevertheless appears to have borne fruit: “We have long been pushing for a bigger terminal and a larger apron. The state has a plan and has declared that it wants to distribute the tourists - that it is better to have more airports and entry points” (Hjaltí).

Hjaltí believes that addressing Akureyri’s development deeply hinges on the regional DMOs’ as well, calling attention to its role in attracting increased investment from stakeholders, who in turn build accommodation infrastructure and facilitate space for conferences and trade shows. Despite the north’s perceived lower attractiveness compared to the south and the capital region, the assertions made by Baggio and Sainaghi (2011) underscore the policymakers’ critical role in mitigating seasonality by leveraging the destination’s existing capacity and economic potential. Guðrún, director of the Icelandic Tourism Research Centre, emphasises that addressing these issues is not solely a responsibility of policymakers as collaboration among stakeholders should form the cornerstone of any strategic management approach:

It is very important that municipalities and communities try to visualise and try to understand how tourism can benefit their livelihood and strengthen them in a positive way in the long run. So, it will not be just to run after tourism, but it is important that they begin to understand how to manage this from the very beginning. (Guðrún)

On a related note, Hjördís notes the government’s disproportionate focus on development in the Capital Area, identified as the epicentre of Icelandic tourism, perpetuating a “core-periphery dualism” (Koo & Papatheodorou , 2017 , p. 238) that results in an uneven economic investment. A bias is evident as the overwhelming majority of air arrivals have passed through KEF and gravitated towards stays in the south and the capital region (Icelandic Tourist Board , 2023) . The lack of air infrastructure investment in the north relates to a ‘which came first: the chicken or the egg’ problem, as entrepreneurs and policymakers do not want to build anything before, they see the development happening (Smyth et al. , 2012) . Hjaltí explains the paradigm for the northern region:

We need to start with the nest. And the nest is the airport. Without the nest, we haven’t got any chicken or any eggs… for us in the north, this is the case, this is the reason why it is so vital for us to get international traffic and proper airport facilities. From there, we can build in many different ways, but we need the connection. (Hjaltí)

The sentiments shared by our interviewees spotlight a perceived surge in Iceland’s tourism activity, with burgeoning interest from foreign airlines and travel agencies, signalling an acceleration in the growth pace. Hjördís anticipates North Iceland is emerging as a secondary destination, catering to individuals seeking alternatives to the well-trodden paths of the south: “Many people have already been to the south. Now, people are eager to get to another place, so this is very important for Iceland as a whole, that we have something.” María Helena from Visit Akureyri affirms this feeling, stressing the necessity for winter-time utilisation of facilities to ensure year-round viability:

As soon as we get planes and companies flying directly to Akureyri, people stay longer in the area… They [the entrepreneurs] want to see that they can sell the destination during wintertime as well. It is not enough just to sell during the high season, the peak of summer. Nobody has seen a value for something which is going to stand empty for most of the year, but if you have direct flights coming as well during wintertime… it means that you can hopefully fill up many of those beds also and get a better value out of your investment.

Tourism can play an important role in economic growth while contributing to the development of related services and infrastructure (Nguyen , 2021) . Overall, the industry representatives agreed that accommodations, various modes of transport and other services should be in place to tackle the incoming flows, aligning with findings on factors that affect a positive tourism development. These sentiments indicate a strong sense of destination capacity for upcoming developments related to tourism in their area and North Iceland.

Extended Capacity Development

Amidst the potential economic benefits, the rapid pace of emerging destinations can catch stakeholders unprepared for substantial tourist influxes, necessitating the enhancement of local community knowledge and human capacity (Getz & Nilsson , 2004; Novelli & Burns , 2010) . Hjördís highlights the undersupply of facilities in the area for an all-year destination:

I think that we don’t have enough hotels, we see that in the summer… This doesn’t happen overnight but in an ideal world this is what we need. Then of course infrastructure. There will be demand for more accommodations and more activities and services. A reason for tourists to stick around in that particular area… we need more of this and all year-round in the less developed areas, not just in Akureyri. (Hjördís)

If the latter statement further accentuates the need for innovative services and products as compelling assets for diversifying the existing offer compared to competitive tourism destinations (Pham et al. , 2018) , another contributor stresses the importance of understanding multiple aspects, including tourists’ needs and wants in the current economy (Pike et al. , 2016) :

The pandemic makes it obvious that not all segments are the same… foreign tourists were not arriving, domestic tourists started to visit, their requests were different, for example whale watching was not so demanded. Now, service providers are still wondering about what kind of activities tourists would like to experience if they are in town. (Anonymous)

Both respondents foresee an uncertain scenario and at the same time underline the unique value of connectivity. Academics highlight the need for more regional-based island research to compensate for the lack of knowledge and experiences (Qu et al. , 2023) and distinguish destinations as conglomerates of goods and services which provide unified visitor experiences (Benur & Bramwell , 2015; Buhalis , 2000) . Despite the imminent development that the region is expected to undergo, interviews with stakeholders revealed a spectrum of views regarding the area’s future trajectory. Data gleaned from our fifteen interviewees align with similar studies from Norway, Spain, and South Korea where stakeholders’ opinions and relations to airport developments were examined (Caballero Galeote & García Mestanza , 2020; Halpern & Bråthen , 2011; Song & Suh , 2022) . In this particular research, the respondents see the benefits of the airport expansion project and consider tourism development as an opportunity for democratisation through the airport expansion, which could allow emerging insular destinations to be connected with the outside world (Higgins-Desbiolles & Bigby , 2022) . Eyrún emphasises the locals’ notions about airport expansion in relation to the ongoing development:

Locals understand that the development is not only for tourists. Previous studies carried out by the Icelandic Tourism Research Centre have shown that majorities of residents in the north overall seem satisfied about tourists in their areas, and further see how enterprises benefit their daily lives, for example, through increased connectivity to the outside world. (Eyrún)

Her observation is that locals grasp that the development is not solely for tourists (emphasis added), while noting the local community’s genuine satisfaction with these advancements, as stated by Lee et al. (2021) , who emphasise that inclusive approaches have the ability to foster sustainable growth and be beneficial for the local communities in the region. Eyrún’s point of view is shared by other respondents. One states that “the vast majority of people I speak to are happy to directly fly to Denmark, London and maybe Germany next year [in 2023].” (Hjaltí), while another adds:

Everybody living here in the north, and probably also in the east and west, they really like that this airport is expanding and that we will get more flights. They see opportunities both for tourists to come to them, and then also themselves being able to go abroad more easily. (Hjördís)

Respondents are indeed on a par with literature findings and initiatives by the Icelandic Route Development Fund which show support for expansion (Government of Iceland , 2015) , indicating that strengthening air infrastructure could have the potential to enhance the wellbeing of residents (Florida et al. , 2014; Ke & Baker , 2022) and extend their lifeline in the region as a conglomerate of communities constituting an emerging insular tourism destination (Rodríguez & Raúl , 2018) . Our data shows that capacity building strategies need to be developed simultaneously at a destination level in a more holistic approach. In this study we identified and analysed the groups of infrastructure capacity, human capacity, services’ infrastructure capacity as an amalgam under a shared term ‘extended capacity.’

The study delves into the pivotal role of air infrastructure as a catalyst for hospitality development in emerging insular destinations. Figure 2 shows that in the case of Akureyri, adjusting seasonality is not a linear process beginning from the mere investment on air infrastructure, but from the point of designing policies to simultaneously develop the aforementioned ‘extended capacity.’

While the airport expansion and its investment are viewed by the interviewees as an asset towards socioeconomic improvement and a tool to tackle existing seasonality issues, it proves to be complex in practice. Seasonality has been examined by various academics (Butler , 1998; Butler et al. , 2001; Getz & Nilsson , 2004; Gil-Alana & Huijbens , 2018; Pham et al. , 2018; Sæþórsdóttir et al. , 2019; Senbeto & Hon , 2019; Þórhallsdóttir & Ólafsson , 2015) and studies from various locations have illustrated the complexity of overcoming and tackling the phenomenon. In this study, and as visualised in Figure 2 , the authors have identified other ‘extended capacity’ components that are vital to consider while designing processes for better handling seasonality challenges.

Baggio and Sainaghi (2011) , along with and Novelli and Burns (2010) , concur that comprehending the pivotal influence of policymakers in adapting to seasonality by maximising available capacity and economic opportunities reveals a distinct, yet somewhat uncommon level of stakeholder preparedness. This readiness manifests through an acute awareness of sustainable development facets, fostering a shared responsibility for destination development alongside policymakers.

Baum & Lundtorp (2001) argue that the geographical constraints and financial burdens faced by emerging insular destinations significantly impact their competitiveness and year-round operational viability. The willingness displayed by interviewed participants to address seasonality issues and collaborate to enhance the destination’s success by attracting more tourists represents a paradox. Despite their readiness, the destination lacks sufficient hotel capacity and services, raising the question: What should be prioritised, attracting investment or tourists? Our primary data confirm a deficiency in hospitality facilities, a significant impediment affecting residents’ livelihoods due to the absence of a competitive array of on-site tourism services and products.

Policymakers and stakeholders should be aware that the insufficiency of resources and capacity may perpetuate a persistent core-periphery divide (Koo & Papatheodorou , 2017) , leading to a scarcity of high-calibre locales (Howie , 2003; Ritchie & Crouch , 2003; Wyckoff , 2014) . This challenge is mirrored for destination planners who face the risk of increased fluidity in the movement of goods, people, and ideas, potentially compromising the pursuit of sustainable development (Santana et al. , 2022) and favouring a privileged subset of stakeholders (Jovicic , 2016) . Indeed, the case of Akureyri underscores the pressing need to fortify local community knowledge and human capacity, a critical factor emphasised by Pike et al. (2016) as essential for community readiness. Hence, we argue that an ‘extended capacity’ management approach represents a pivotal, yet frequently overlooked aspect in mitigating seasonality in emerging insular destinations.

Academics argue that the advantages for host communities to join the tourism enterprise are numerous, ranging from enhanced access to amenities and facilities to the democratisation of tourism enabled by robust mobility and connectivity to the outside world (Caballero Galeote & García Mestanza , 2020) . As seen in the figure 2 , the expansion of AEY runways not only spurs destination growth but also promises benefits for residents in both eastern and western regions, fostering equitable mobility for all Icelanders and encouraging a more evenly distributed tourist flow across the country. This expansion signifies improved regional air safety. The significant investment totalling six hundred million ISK to develop the extension of AEY airport holds a dual-folded agenda: the revitalisation of the north and a transformative impact on the global tourism landscape (Centre for Aviation , 2022; Ćirić , 2020) .

The analysis of air infrastructure’s role as a catalyst for hospitality development in emerging insular destinations reveals several critical seasonality aspects and potential future directions. The study emphasises uncertainties surrounding forthcoming advancements following the airport expansion, including necessary services and products required, together with the unspecified tourism flows and investor interest. Advanced transport connectivity significantly impacts various aspects of a place, yet despite Iceland’s poised tourism growth, the diminished inflows during shoulder seasons present a fundamental challenge for the northern region’s prospects for sustainable development. Stakeholders apparently prioritise the fast development track even though they are aware about some aspects of sustainability, however, the absence of year-round businesses poses risks for investors and affects the region’s tourism potential. Furthermore, it was identified that ‘extended capacity’ in destination hospitality infrastructure is essential to address the needs of both locals and visitors. Additionally, we advocate for simultaneously building extended human skill capacity to diversify tourism offerings by stakeholders as crucial to transform the future of insular emerging destinations. Addressing seasonality and strengthening the ‘extended capacity’ framework simultaneously with infrastructure capacities are critical to extending benefits to the Northern Region’s residents and visitors. Air transport enhancements can influence Akureyri and the broader northern region, fostering off-peak travel, air security in the region, service diversification, and spreading investment. We remark that collaboration among tourism stakeholders is crucial, therefore the methodology employed highlighted and unveiled inclusive community engagement, socioeconomic benefits, and challenges inherent in remote insular destinations, further showcasing the need for comprehensive analysis in future research endeavours. The paper provides a Social Arenas Map where interdependencies among stakeholders and actors in North Iceland are identified, showcasing the broad connectedness together with the links between local and national tourism ecosystems. As aviation connectivity unfolds, it offers an opportunity for North Icelandic stakeholders to collectively strategise sustainable development, potentially fostering responsible travel experiences by mobilising tourism flows all over the country and not solely consolidated destinations, and thus, increase the visits to more insular emerging destinations.

Concluding Remarks

Our contribution to the Island Studies Journal showcase a span of complexities related to seasonality and air infrastructure development in a remote insular destination. Other capacity types focusing on environmental aspects, such as CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, have not been studied. Similarly has the cruise tourism industry and its influence on carrying capacity and local residents’ sentiments hereto been left out of the scope of this research. Hence, for a greater overview, valuable to both practitioners and academics, the authors propose a continued research focus on environmental aspects and an in-depth analysis of residents’ opinions to the presence of tourists. The mere fact that interviewed stakeholders and locals do not oppose sustainable development could suggest a solid basis for a democratised tourism development (Higgins-Desbiolles & Bigby , 2022) . A progress counting both locals and tourists could further a prosperous development alongside the expansion of AEY and in tackling seasonality issues. Ultimately, it calls on policymakers’ support to furthering development (Butler , 1998) and adjusting seasonality conflicts and imbalances in the northern region of Iceland. The actualising of implementations carried out in practice could ultimately determine the state of tourism development in Akureyri and neighbouring areas, and potentially have an effect on Iceland’s sustainable tourism progress.

Submitted : August 02, 2023 CST

Accepted : March 10, 2024 CST

IMAGES

(PDF) The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism
The Role Of Transportation Systems In Promoting Tourism Development
Sustainable travel and the National Transport Strategy
Impacts of Tourism on the Development of Transportation Infrastructure
If you build it, they will come: Why infrastructure is crucial to
Components of tourism infrastructure (Source: compiled on the basis of

COMMENTS

If you build it, they will come: Why infrastructure is crucial to
Since 2017, air transport infrastructure is one of the most improved components in the index, with strong growth in scores across most regions, subregions and economic development levels.However, much of this performance has come from growing route capacity and the number of carriers operating. Perceptions of the quality of air transport infrastructure, while better since 2017, have grown more ...
The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism
The above hypotheses are indeed supported by the study. The results of the first step GMM estimates are reported in Tables 1 and 2.Referring to tourism flows to various continents in Table 1 (columns 3-6), transport infrastructure is confirmed to have played an important role together with tourism infrastructure. This is more pronounced for the case of developed continent destinations ...
The Integral Role of Transport in Tourism Development
Transport's pivotal role in the tourism ecosystem. Transport doesn't just move people; it connects cultures, drives local economies, and supports the infrastructure of the tourism industry. When transport systems are efficient, they can enhance the appeal of a destination by making it more accessible and enjoyable for travelers. Economic ...
The Role of Transport Infrastructure in International Tourism
Some of the studies one aspect of infrastructure such as transport infrastructure in tourism development (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2007; Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2008) while rail infrastructure impact ...
The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism
Referring to tourism ﬂows to various continents in Table 1 (columns 3-6), transport infrastructure is conﬁrmed to have played an important role together with tourism infrastructure. This is more pronounced for the case of developed continent destinations (Europe and America) which in fact have invested massively in efﬁcient transport ...
Infrastructure
Infrastructure boosts tourism development by raising the attractiveness and competitiveness of a destination (Seetanah et al. 2019).Tourists usually expect facilities in their chosen destination to be comparable to what they enjoy at home (Cohen 1979).Empirical work has provided support on the role of various types of infrastructure in tourism development.
The role of transportation in developing the tourism sector at high
The economic role of transport is as a bridge between the tourist (buyer) and the tourism services (seller). Numerous studies have been done in different physiographic regions of the world. Gearing et al. reveal the attractiveness of Turkey's tourist destination, and he stressed the development of transport infrastructure at the destination.
The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism
The role of transport infrastructure 2 in destination development. Prideaux (2000) defines the transport system relevant to tourism as "the operation of, and interaction between, transport modes, ways and terminals that support tourists into and out of destinations and also the provision of transport services within the destination ...
The Importance of Transportation to Tourism Development
3. Importance of transportation in international tour ism. The development of tourist transport is conditioned by the existence of appropriate means of transport for the means of. transport: roads ...
Transport and tourism, an inseparable alliance: the ...
Tourism is based on the physical movement of people, and it is therefore of fundamental importance to have a transport system that is functional and that can facilitate travel to tourist destinations. However, transport is also important in itself because it ensures the freedom of movement for people and reduces social distances, in turn promoting growth and economic development. For this ...
Re-defining the Role of Transport in Sustainable Tourism Development
The role of transport in tourism is significant and emphasized by many authors; it is a component of tourism development, tourism theories and concepts, and tourism product (Cardenas, Tabares, 1998, Prideaux 2000, Lew 2004, Hall 2008). Transport infrastructure contributes to economic success based on tourism.
The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism
DOI: 10.1016/J.TOURMAN.2007.09.005 Corpus ID: 155049988; The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach @article{Khadaroo2008TheRO, title={The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach}, author={Jameel Khadaroo and Boopen Seetanah}, journal={Tourism Management}, year={2008}, volume={29 ...
Impact of Investment in Tourism Infrastructure Development on
Tourism plays a vital role in the economic growth of many countries, contributing to the development of related services and infrastructure. Thus, the development of tourism affects the progress and prosperity of the national economy (Sinclair 1998).International tourists bring foreign currencies to destination countries, increase residents' incomes, create jobs, improve living standards ...
Spatial spillover of transport improvement on tourism growth
Transport infrastructure plays an important role in moving tourists to and between destinations. In this study, we investigate the spatial spillover effects of transport improvements on regional tourism growth.
Importance of Tourism Infrastructure Development
Tourism Industry is one of the fast-growing industry in the 21st century. Tourism infrastructure is the key element of tourism development. Tourism industry's contribution to the GDP is also impressive (annual growth rate around 10.35%).Visits by a tourist create additional development of the place such as parks, gardens, and museums.
Infrastructure, tourism
Sound infrastructure is indispensable for the development of tourism as an economic pillar in any country. In a broad sense, infrastructure includes physical, legal, environmental, and mental amenities which contribute to making the tourism product enjoyable, reliable, and sustainable. Physical infrastructure of direct relevance to tourism comprises the airport, seaport, inland road network ...
The Importance of Tourist Infrastructure for The Sustainable
Accordingly, one of the. basic functions of infrastructure is to enable this. In addition, tourism includes the stay of. tourists, with the use of various services. Since infrastructural resources ...
Tourism Infrastructure Development: Opportunities in ...
Tourism infrastructure plays a pivotal role in shaping the travel experience for millions of people worldwide. From hotels and resorts to transportation networks and attractions, a well-developed ...
Public Transport Connectivity and Intercity Tourist Flows
A destination's transport infrastructure (i.e., roads, airports, railways, and harbors) plays a central role in shaping a local tourism industry's overall competitiveness. McKercher (1998) investigated how tourists' destination choices are informed by market access, which refers to the competitive (dis)advantages of a destination vis-à ...
Transport infrastructure and tourism development
Transport infrastructure. The tourism product has been characterized by several researchers. Murphy, ... An investigation of the role of transport infrastructure making use of panel regression analysis to explain arrivals from different origin countries into small island economies has so far been nonexistent. This study undertakes such an ...
Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies ...
Tourism plays a crucial role in the economic development of many nations, particularly in developing economies, where it can be a significant driver of growth and employment. ... where the items related to the transport infrastructure and signalization Local tourist and traffic signalization is in line with the needs of tourists, a high-quality ...
The Role of Transport in Tourism
Transportation affects the mobility of tourists, in addition to influencing their demand and motivation to visit a certain tourist destinations. The successful development of new tourist destinations depends heavily on the accessibility and connectivity of the existing transport network. Transportation is also important in terms of promoting ...
The Role of Air Transport Infrastructure Towards Breaking Seasonality
Tourism can play an important role in economic growth while contributing to the development of related services and infrastructure (Nguyen, 2021). Overall, the industry representatives agreed that accommodations, various modes of transport and other services should be in place to tackle the incoming flows, aligning with findings on factors that ...

If you build it, they will come: Why infrastructure is crucial to tourism growth and competitiveness

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The Integral Role of Transport in Tourism Development

The lifeline of tourism

Technological advancements spurring growth

From steam engine s to jet planes

Impacts on destination choice and travel frequency

Fulfilling the needs of domestic and international tourists

The quest for seamless travel experiences

Accessibility for all

Integrated transport solutions: Enhancing tourist experiences

Case studies of successful integration

Challenges and opportunities in integration

Transport’s pivotal role in the tourism ecosystem

Economic impacts of a robust transport system

Environmental considerations

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The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: A gravity model approach

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Exploring tourism competitiveness in developing economies: residents’ perspective

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1 Introduction

2 Literature review

3 Methodology

3.1 In-depth literature review

3.2 Pilot testing

3.3 Model set and validation

3.3.2 Procedure and research instrument

4.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)

4.2 Confirmatory factory analysis

4.3 Descriptive statistics and measurement model validity

5 Discussion

6 Conclusion

7 Practical implication

8 Limitation and further research

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