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5.2: Traffic Flow

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Traffic Flow is the study of the movement of individual drivers and vehicles between two points and the interactions they make with one another. Unfortunately, studying traffic flow is difficult because driver behavior cannot be predicted with one-hundred percent certainty. Fortunately, drivers tend to behave within a reasonably consistent range; thus, traffic streams tend to have some reasonable consistency and can be roughly represented mathematically. To better represent traffic flow, relationships have been established between the three main characteristics: (1) flow, (2) density, and (3) velocity. These relationships help in planning, design, and operations of roadway facilities.

Traffic flow theory

Time-space diagram.

Traffic engineers represent the location of a specific vehicle at a certain time with a time-space diagram. This two-dimensional diagram shows the trajectory of a vehicle through time as it moves from a specific origin to a specific destination. Multiple vehicles can be represented on a diagram and, thus, certain characteristics, such as flow at a certain site for a certain time, can be determined.

Flow and density

Flow (q) = the rate at which vehicles pass a fixed point (vehicles per hour) ,

\[ t_{measured}=Average \text{ } measured \text{ } time \text{ } headway\)

\[q=\frac{3600 N}{t_{measured}}

Density (Concentration) (k) = number of vehicles (N) over a stretch of roadway (L) (in units of vehicles per kilometer)

\[k=\frac{N}{L}\]

• \(q\) = equivalent hourly flow
• \(L\) = length of roadway
• \(k\) = density

Measuring speed of traffic is not as obvious as it may seem; we can average the measurement of the speeds of individual vehicles over time or over space, and each produces slightly different results.

Time mean speed

Time mean speed (\(\bar t\)) = arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles passing a point

\[\bar v_t=\frac{1}{N} \sum_{n=1}^Nv_n\]

Space mean speed

Space mean speed (\(\bar {v_s}\)) is defined as the harmonic mean of speeds passing a point during a period of time. It also equals the average speeds over a length of roadway.

\[\bar v_t=\dfrac{N}{\sum_{n=1}^N \frac{1}{v_n}}\)

Relating time and space mean speed

Note that the time mean speed is average speed past a point as distinct from space mean speed which is average speed along a length.

The two speeds are related as

\[\bar v_t=\bar v_s + \frac{\sigma_s^2}{\bar v_s}\]

The time mean speed higher than the space mean speed, but the differences vary with the amount of variability within the speed of vehices. At high speeds (free flow), differences are minor, whereas in congested times, they might differ a factor 2.

The following definitions give what is referred to as the brutto gap (Asela) (Italian for gross ), in contrast to netto gaps (Italian for net ). Netto gaps give the distance or time between the rear bumper of a vehicle and the front bumper of the next.

Time headway

Time headway (\(h_t\)) = difference between the time when the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at the same point (in seconds)

Average Time Headway (\(\bar h_t\)) = Average Travel Time per Unit Distance * Average Space Headway

\[\bar h_t=\bar t *\bar h_s\]

Space headway

Space headway (\(h_s\)) = difference in position between the front of a vehicle and the front of the next vehicle (in meters)

Average Space Headway (\(\bar h_s\))= Space Mean Speed * Average Time Headway

\[\bar h_s = \bar v_s * \bar h_t\]

Note that density and space headway are related:

\[k=\frac{1}{\bar{h_s}\]

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

The variables of flow, density, and space mean speed are related definitionally as:

\[q=k\bar v_s\]

Traditional Model (Parabolic)

Properties of the traditional fundamental diagram.

• When density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero because there are no vehicles on the highway
• As density increases, flow increases
• When the density reaches a maximum jam density (\(k_j\)), flow must be zero because vehicles will line up end to end
• Flow will also increase to a maximum value (\(q_m\)), increases in density beyond that point result in reductions of flow.
• Speed is space mean speed.
• At density = 0, speed is freeflow (\(v_f\)). The upper half of the flow curve is uncongested, the lower half is congested.
• The slope of the flow density curve gives speed. Rise/Run = Flow/Density = Vehicles per hour/ Vehicles per km = km / hour

Observation (Triangular or Truncated Triangular)

Actual traffic data is often much noisier than idealized models suggest. However, what we tend to see is that as density rises, speed is unchanged to a point (capacity) and then begins to drop if it is affected by downstream traffic (queue spillbacks). For a single link, the relationship between flow and density is thus more triangular than parabolic. When we aggregate multiple links together (e.g. a network), we see a more parabolic shape.

Microscopic and Macroscopic Models

Models describing traffic flow can be classed into two categories: microscopic and macroscopic. Ideally, macroscopic models are aggregates of the behavior seen in microscopic models.

Microscopic Models

Microscopic models predict the following behavior of cars (their change in speed and position) as a function of the behavior of the leading vehicle.

Macroscopic Models

Macroscopic traffic flow theory relates traffic flow, running speed, and density. Analogizing traffic to a stream, it has principally been developed for limited access roadways (Leutzbach 1988). The fundamental relationship “q=kv” (flow (q) equals density (k) multiplied by speed (v)) is illustrated by the fundamental diagram. Many empirical studies have quantified the component bivariate relationships (q vs. v, q vs. k, k vs. v), refining parameter estimates and functional forms (Gerlough and Huber 1975, Pensaud and Hurdle 1991; Ross 1991; Hall, Hurdle and Banks 1992; Banks 1992; Gilchrist and Hall 1992; Disbro and Frame 1992).

The most widely used model is the Greenshields model, which posited that the relationships between speed and density is linear. These were most appropriate before the advent of high-powered computers enabled the use of microscopic models. Macroscopic properties like flow and density are the product of individual (microscopic) decisions. Yet those microscopic decision-makers are affected by the environment around them, i.e. the macroscopic properties of traffic.

While traffic flow theorists represent traffic as if it were a fluid, queueing analysis essentially treats traffic as a set of discrete particles. These two representations are not-necessarily inconsistent. The figures to the right show the same 4 phases in the fundamental diagram and the queueing input-output diagram. This is discussed in more detail in the next section.

Example 1: Time-Mean and Space-Mean Speeds

Given five observed velocities (60 km/hr, 35 km/hr, 45 km/hr, 20 km/hr, and 50 km/hr), what is the time-mean speed and space-mean speed?

Time-Mean Speed:

\(\bar v_t=\dfrac{1}{5}(60+35+45+20+50)=42\)

Space-Mean Speed:

\(\bar v_s=\frac{N}{\sum_{n=1}^N\dfrac{1}{v_n}=\frac{5}{\dfrac{1}{60}+\dfrac{1}{35}+\dfrac{1}{45}+\dfrac{1}{20}+\dfrac{1}{50}}=36.37\)

The time-mean speed is 42 km/hr and the space-mean speed is 36.37 km/hr.

Example 2: Computing Traffic Flow Characteristics

Given that 40 vehicles pass a given point in 1 minute and traverse a length of 1 kilometer, what is the flow, density, and time headway?

Compute flow and density:

\(q=\frac{3600(40)}{60s}=2400 \text{ } veh/hr\)

\(k=\frac{40}{1}=40 \text{ } veh/km\)

Find space-mean speed:

\(q=k \bar v_s=2400 =40 \bar v_s\)

\(\bar v_s=60 km/hr\)

Compute space headway:

\(k=40=\frac{1}{\bar h_s}\)

\(\bar h_s=0.025 km =25m\)

Compute time headway:

\(\bar h_s = \bar v_s* \bar h_t=25=(60*1000/3600)\bar h_t\)

\(\bar h_t=1.5s\)

The time headway is 1.5 seconds.

EXAMPLE 3: The spot speeds (expressed in km/hr) observed at a road section are 66, 62, 45, 79, 32, 51,56,60,53 and 49. The median speed (expressed in km/hr) is .

Solution: Median speed is the speed at the middle value in series of spot speeds that are arranged in ascending order. 50% of speed values will be greater than the median 50% will be less than the median. Ascending order of spot speed studies are 32,39,45,51,53,56,60,62,66,79

Median speed = (53 +56 )/2=54.5 km/hr.

Thought Question

Microscopic traffic flow simulates the behaviors of individual vehicles while macroscopic traffic flow simulates the behaviors of the traffic stream overall. Conceptually, it would seem that microscopic traffic flow would be more accurate, as it would be based on driver behavior than simply flow characteristics. Assuming microscopic simulation could be calibrated to truly account for driver behaviors, what is the primary drawback to simulating a large network?

Computer power. To simulate a very large network with microscopic simulation, the number of vehicles that needed to be assessed is very large, requiring a lot of computer memory. Current computers have issues doing very large microscopic networks in a timely fashion, but perhaps future advances will do away with this issue.

Sample Problem

Four vehicles are traveling at constant speeds between sections X and Y (280 meters apart) with their positions and speeds observed at an instant in time. An observer at point X observes the four vehicles passing point X during a period of 15 seconds. The speeds of the vehicles are measured as 88, 80, 90, and 72 km/hr respectively. Calculate the flow, density, time mean speed, and space mean speed of the vehicles.

\(q=N(\dfrac{3600}{t_{measured}})=4(\dfrac{3600}{15})=960 \text{ } veh/hr\)

\(k=\frac{N}{L}=\frac{4*1000}{280}=14.2 \text{ } veh/km

Time Mean Speed

\(\bar v_t=\frac{1}{N} \sum_{n=1}^N v_n=\frac{1}{4}(72+90+80+88)=82.5 \text{ } km/hr\)

Space Mean Speed

\(\bar v_s=\frac{N}{\sum_{n=1}^N \frac{1}{v_i}}=\frac{4}{\frac{1}{72} \frac{1}{90} \frac{1}{80} \frac{1}{88}}=81.86

\(t_i=L/v_i\)

\(t_A=L/v_A=0.28/88=0.00318hr\)

\(t_B=L/v_B=0.28/80=0.00350hr\)

\(t_C=L/v_C=0.28/90=0.00311hr\)

\(t_D=L/v_D=0.28/72=0.00389hr\)

\(\bar v_s=\frac{NL}{\sum_{n=1}^N i_n}=\frac{4*0.28}{(0.00318+0.00350+0.00311+0.00389)}=81.87 \text{ } km/hr\)

• \(d_n\) = distance of n th vehicle
• \(t_n\) = travel time of n th vehicle
• \(v_n\) = speed (velocity) of n th vehicle
• \(h_{t,nm}\) = time headway between vehicles \(n\) and \(m\)
• \(h_{s,nm}\) = space (distance) headway between vehicles \(n\) and \(m\)
• \(q\) = flow past a fixed point (vehicles per hour)
• \(N\) = number of vehicles
• \(t_{measured}\) = time over which measurement takes place (number of seconds)
• \(t\) = travel time
• \(k\) = density (vehicles per km)
• \(L\) = length of roadway section (km)
• \(v_t\) = time mean speed
• \(v_s\) = space mean speed
• \(v_f\) = freeflow (uncongested speed)
• \(k_j\) = jam density
• \(q_m\) = maximum flow
• Time-space diagram
• Flow, speed, density
• Headway (space and time)
• Space mean speed, time mean speed
• Microscopic, Macroscopic

Supplementary Reading

• Revised Monograph on Traffic Flow Theory

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Meta-Analysis and the Value of Travel Time Savings: A Transatlantic Perspective in Passenger Transport

• Published: 25 September 2007
• Volume 7 , pages 377–396, ( 2007 )

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• Luca Zamparini 1 &
• Aura Reggiani 2  

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The value of travel time savings (VTTS) is the monetary value attached to the possibility to save a determined amount of travel time. VTTS is also the most important benefit category aimed at justifying investments in transport infrastructures by public administrations. Hence VTTS played a significant role in various economic studies, both analytical and empirical. The present paper introduces a brief history of meta-analysis and describes the microeconomic formula used in VTTS estimations. It also provides a meta-analytical estimation of a selection of empirical studies, emphasizing the similarities and the differences between European and North-American observations.

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Zamparini, L., Reggiani, A. Meta-Analysis and the Value of Travel Time Savings: A Transatlantic Perspective in Passenger Transport. Netw Spat Econ 7 , 377–396 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11067-007-9028-5

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How to Calculate Travel Time Formula: A Step-by-Step Guide

By Happy Sharer

Introduction

The travel time formula is used to calculate the amount of time it takes to travel from one location to another. This formula is often used by travelers, transportation companies, and logistics professionals when planning trips or routes. This article will provide an overview of the travel time formula, explain how to calculate travel time, and examine the factors that can affect the calculation.

Explaining the Travel Time Formula Step-by-Step

To calculate travel time, you must first determine the distance, speed, and time for the route. Distance is simply the total length of the journey, while speed is the average speed at which the journey will be completed. Finally, time is the total amount of time it will take to complete the journey. Once these three variables have been determined, you can use the following equation to calculate travel time:

Travel Time = Distance / Speed

For example, if you are travelling 100 miles at a speed of 50 miles per hour, the travel time would be calculated as follows:

Travel Time = 100 miles / 50 miles per hour = 2 hours

Using Examples to Illustrate How to Calculate Travel Time

To further illustrate how to calculate travel time, let’s look at two examples. In the first example, a person is travelling from Los Angeles to San Francisco, a distance of about 400 miles. The person plans to drive at an average speed of 70 miles per hour. To calculate the travel time, we plug the values into the equation:

Travel Time = 400 miles / 70 miles per hour = 5.71 hours

In the second example, a person is travelling from London to Paris, a distance of about 350 miles. The person plans to fly at an average speed of 500 miles per hour. To calculate the travel time, we plug the values into the equation:

Travel Time = 350 miles / 500 miles per hour = 0.7 hours (or 42 minutes)

Breaking Down the Components of the Travel Time Formula

Now that we’ve seen how to calculate travel time with the formula, let’s take a closer look at each component of the equation.

Distance is the total length of the journey in miles or kilometers. It’s important to note that some routes may be longer than others due to detours or traffic. Therefore, it’s best to estimate the distance before calculating travel time.

Speed is the average speed at which the journey will be completed, usually measured in miles or kilometers per hour. It’s important to consider the speed limits on the roads or airways you’ll be travelling on, as well as any potential delays such as traffic or weather.

Time is the total amount of time it will take to complete the journey. This can be measured in hours, minutes, or seconds depending on the level of precision you need.

Comparing Different Travel Time Formulas

The travel time formula can be used to calculate the time it takes to travel by car, plane, or even on foot. Each mode of transportation has its own unique formula for calculating travel time.

Driving Time

When travelling by car, the travel time formula is typically used. This formula takes into account the distance, speed, and time needed to complete the journey.

Flying Time

When travelling by plane, the flight time formula is often used. This formula takes into account the distance between two airports, the average speed of the aircraft, and the total time needed to complete the journey.

Walking Time

When travelling by foot, the walking time formula is often used. This formula takes into account the distance, average walking speed, and total time needed to complete the journey.

Examining Variables That Affect Travel Time

In addition to the variables used in the travel time formula, there are also other external factors that can affect the calculation. For example, weather conditions and traffic congestion can both impact the amount of time it takes to complete a journey.

Weather Conditions

Weather conditions can have a significant impact on travel time. For example, inclement weather such as rain or snow can slow down a vehicle’s speed, resulting in increased travel time.

Traffic Congestion

Traffic congestion can also affect travel time. During peak hours, roads may be more congested, resulting in slower speeds and increased travel time.

Creating a Travel Time Calculator Tool

A travel time calculator is a useful tool for travelers, transportation companies, and logistics professionals. This tool can be used to quickly calculate travel time based on distance, speed, and time. Here are some benefits of using a travel time calculator:

• Save time: Calculating travel time manually can be time-consuming. With a travel time calculator, you can quickly and accurately calculate travel time.
• Reduce errors: Manually calculating travel time can lead to errors. With a travel time calculator, you can reduce the risk of making mistakes.
• Increase efficiency: A travel time calculator can help you plan your trips more efficiently.

If you’re interested in creating a travel time calculator, here are some guidelines to follow:

• Determine the type of calculator you want to create. Do you want to create a calculator for cars, planes, or walking?
• Gather the necessary data. You will need to collect data on distances, speeds, and times for the calculator.
• Design the user interface. This should be easy to use and understand.
• Test the calculator. Test the calculator to ensure it works correctly.
• Launch the calculator. Once the calculator is tested, you can launch it for public use.

The travel time formula is a useful tool for calculating the amount of time it takes to travel from one location to another. By understanding the components of the formula and the factors that can affect the calculation, you can calculate travel time more accurately. Additionally, you can create a travel time calculator tool to save time and increase efficiency.

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Hi, I'm Happy Sharer and I love sharing interesting and useful knowledge with others. I have a passion for learning and enjoy explaining complex concepts in a simple way.

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Module 9: Multi-Step Linear Equations

Using the distance, rate, and time formula, learning outcomes.

• Use the problem-solving method to solve problems using the distance, rate, and time formula

One formula you’ll use often in algebra and in everyday life is the formula for distance traveled by an object moving at a constant speed. The basic idea is probably already familiar to you. Do you know what distance you traveled if you drove at a steady rate of [latex]60[/latex] miles per hour for [latex]2[/latex] hours? (This might happen if you use your car’s cruise control while driving on the Interstate.) If you said [latex]120[/latex] miles, you already know how to use this formula!

The math to calculate the distance might look like this:

[latex]\begin{array}{}\\ \text{distance}=\left(\Large\frac{60\text{ miles}}{1\text{ hour}}\normalsize\right)\left(2\text{ hours}\right)\hfill \\ \text{distance}=120\text{ miles}\hfill \end{array}[/latex]

In general, the formula relating distance, rate, and time is

[latex]\text{distance}\text{=}\text{rate}\cdot \text{time}[/latex]

Distance, Rate, and Time

For an object moving at a uniform (constant) rate, the distance traveled, the elapsed time, and the rate are related by the formula

[latex]d=rt[/latex]

where [latex]d=[/latex] distance, [latex]r=[/latex] rate, and [latex]t=[/latex] time.

Notice that the units we used above for the rate were miles per hour, which we can write as a ratio [latex]\Large\frac{miles}{hour}[/latex]. Then when we multiplied by the time, in hours, the common units “hour” divided out. The answer was in miles.

Jamal rides his bike at a uniform rate of [latex]12[/latex] miles per hour for [latex]3\Large\frac{1}{2}[/latex] hours. How much distance has he traveled?

In the following video we provide another example of how to solve for distance given rate and time.

Rey is planning to drive from his house in San Diego to visit his grandmother in Sacramento, a distance of [latex]520[/latex] miles. If he can drive at a steady rate of [latex]65[/latex] miles per hour, how many hours will the trip take?

Show Solution

In the following video we show another example of how to find rate given distance and time.

• Question ID 145550, 145553,145619,145620. Authored by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Ex: Find the Rate Given Distance and Time. Authored by : James Sousa (Mathispower4u.com). Located at : https://youtu.be/3rYh32ErDaE . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Example: Solve a Problem using Distance = Rate x Time. Authored by : James Sousa (Mathispower4u.com). Located at : https://youtu.be/lMO1L_CvH4Y . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Prealgebra. Provided by : OpenStax. License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]

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Travel Time Reliability: How to Measure and Why it is Important?

by Shahrzad Jalali | Jul 16, 2020 | Blog - ITS Systems - Vehicle detection , Traffic Management

We have all experienced traffic delays in our trips to home, work, or vacations. Although sometimes delays are expected ahead of time, and we can add extra time to our trip duration, unexpected delays can create serious problems for travelers, shippers, and businesses, making travel time reliability important to motorists. The unexpected delays can be caused by adverse weather conditions, road closures, or incidents.

Annual Average Travel Time is the measure that is used to report the roads’ traffic congestion. However, most of the time, it is different from what riders would experience every day or what they remember due to unexpected delays. So, what other measures should be reported along with average travel time as measures of congestion?

Travel Time Reliability (TTR) Measures

Travel Time Reliability (TTR) measures help in calculating the unexpected delays. The following measures are the main components of TTR:

1. Travel Time Index (TTI):

Travel Time Index (TTI) is the ratio of Average Travel Time in peak hours to Free-Flow Travel Time. In other words, the Travel Time Index represents the average additional time required for a trip during peak times in comparison with that trip duration in no-traffic condition. For calculating Free-Flow Travel Time, divide the road length by maximum speed limit of the road.

For instance, if the Average and Free-Flow Travel Time are 5 and 4 minutes, respectively, TTI would be 1.25. This value means that your trip will take 25% longer then no congestion condition. TTI can be calculated for different temporal grouping schemes such as X-minute intervals, by time-of-the-day, day-of-the-week, month, and for the entire year. Also, for each of these groups, TTI can be calculated for weekdays and weekends separately.

2. Buffer Index (BI):

Buffer Time is the additional time for unexpected delays that commuters should consider along with average travel time to be on-time 95 percent of the time. Buffer Index is calculating as follow:

The buffer index is expressed as a percentage. For example, if BI and average travel time are 20% and 10 minutes, then the buffer time would be 2 minutes. Since it is calculated by 95 th percentile travel time, it represents almost all worst-case delay scenarios and assures travelers to be on-time 95 percent of all trips.

3. Planning Time Index (PTI):

Planning Time Index is the ratio of the 95th percentile to the free-flow travel time and shows the total time which is needed for on-time arrival in 95 percent of all trips.

The difference between Buffer Index and Planning Time Index is that BI represents the extra delay time that should be added to average travel time, while the PTI indicates the total trip time (average travel time + buffer time). A PTI value of 2.0 for a given period suggests that travelers should spend twice as much time traveling as the free-flow travel time to reach their destination on-time 95 percent of the time. The planning time index is useful because it can be directly compared to the travel time index on similar numeric scales.

Different percentile values can be used instead of the 95 th percentile. This value depends on your desired level of reliability. The lower percentile value results in lower reliability.

4. 90th or 95th Percentile Travel Times

This measure is the most straightforward method that represents the travel time of the most congested day. Since this measure reports in minutes, it is easily understandable for drivers. However, the 90th or 95th Percentile measure can’t be used to compare different trips because of their various length. Also, it is hard to aggregate the trips travel time and report as subarea or citywide average.

5. Percentage of Travel under Congestion (PTC)

The percentage of travel under congestion is defined as the percentage of all vehicles’ miles traveled (VMT) under congested conditions in the specified duration. The PTC measure can be aggregated in the similar temporal fashion described above for TTI.

6. Frequency that Congestion Exceeds Some Expected Threshold

This measure shows the percent of days or times that the congestion exceeds some expected threshold. The threshold can be set on travel time or speed data, especially when you capture the traffic data 24/7. This measure is commonly reported on weekdays peak hours.

The following figure shows TTR Indices on a Travel Time Distribution chart from SMATS iNode :

An example of Travel Time Distribution Chart in iNode

Source: U.S. Federal Highway Administration

Do  these equations and methodologies seem  overwhelming? SMATS’ iNode is designed to translate raw traffic data into r eady-to-use performance metrics such as Travel Time Reliability (TTR) and much more .

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Travel Time Index

Embedded Dataset Excel:

Dataset Excel:

The Travel Time Index is the ratio of the travel time during the peak period to the time required to make the same trip at free-flow speeds. A value of 1.3, for example, indicates a 20-minute free-flow trip requires 26 minutes during the peak period.

Methodology and data sources have been changed in 2019; these figures are not comparable to those in past editions of NTS. Population group is based on 2020 population.

Description:

KEY: NA = not applicable; R = revised.

Very large urban areas – 3 million and over population.

Large urban areas – 1 million to less than 3 million population.

Medium urban areas – 500,000 to less than 1 million population.

Small urban areas – less than 500,000 population.

a Rank is based on the calculated percent change with the highest number corresponding to a rank of 1.

b   Averages weighted by Vehicle Miles Traveled.

Texas A&M Transportation Institute, 2021 Urban Mobility Report , (College Station, TX: 2021), available at http://mobility.tamu.edu as of Sept. 8, 2021.

Velocity Calculator

What is velocity – velocity definition, the average velocity formula and velocity units, how to calculate velocity – speed vs. velocity, terminal velocity, escape velocity and relativistic velocity.

This velocity calculator is a comprehensive tool that enables you to estimate the speed of an object. If you have ever wondered how to find velocity, here you can do it in three different ways .

• The first one relies on the basic velocity definition that uses the well-known velocity equation.
• The second method calculates what is velocity change caused by acceleration over a specific time interval.
• Finally, the third part of the velocity calculator makes use of the average velocity formula, which may be useful if you need to analyze journeys with various velocities over different distances .

We've also prepared a brief but informative article about velocity itself. Keep reading to learn what is velocity formula and what are the most common velocity units. Did you know that there is an essential difference between speed vs velocity? We've written about it from the point of view of a physicist in the text below.

Velocity definition states that it is the rate of change of the object's position as a function of time. It is one of the fundamental concepts in classical mechanics that considers the motion of bodies. If you want to put this rule down in the form of a mathematical formula, the velocity equation will be as follows:

velocity = distance / time

Keep in mind that this velocity formula only works when an object has a constant speed in a constant direction or if you want to find the average velocity over a certain distance (as opposed to the instantaneous velocity). You have probably noticed that we use the words speed and velocity interchangeably, but you can't do it every time. To learn more about it, head to the speed vs. velocity section.

Aside from the linear velocity, to which we devoted this calculator, there are also other types of velocity, such as rotational or angular velocity with corresponding physical quantities: rotational kinetic energy, angular acceleration, or mass moment of inertia. When an object has only angular velocity, it doesn't displace linearly, and you can't use the average velocity formula, as it only applies to linear movement.

The average velocity formula describes the relationship between the length of your route and the time it takes to travel. For example, if you drive a car for a distance of 70 miles in one hour, your average velocity equals 70 mph. In the previous section, we have introduced the basic velocity equation, but as you probably have already realized, there are more equations in the velocity calculator. Let's list and organize them below:

Simple velocity equation:

Velocity after a certain time of acceleration:

final velocity = initial velocity + acceleration × time

Average velocity formula — the weighted average of velocities:

average velocity = (velocity₁ × time₁ + velocity₂ × time₂ + …) / total time

You should use the average velocity formula if you can divide your route into few segments. For example, you drive a car with a speed of 25 mph for 1 h in the city and then reach 70 mph for 3 h on the highway. What is your average velocity? With the velocity calculator, you can find that it will be about 59 mph .

From the above equations, you can also imagine what are velocity units . British imperial units are feet per second ft/s and miles per hour mph . In the metric SI system, the units are meters per second m/s and kilometers per hour km/h . Remember you can always easily switch between all of them in our tool!

Before we explain how to calculate velocity, we'd like to note that there is a slight difference between velocity and speed. The former is determined by the difference between the final and initial position and the direction of movement, while the latter requires only the distance covered. In other words, velocity is a vector (with the magnitude and direction), and speed is a scalar (with magnitude only).

It's time to use the average velocity formula in practice. Provided an object traveled 500 meters in 3 minutes , to calculate the average velocity, you should take the following steps:

Change minutes into seconds (so that the final result would be in meters per second):

3 minutes = 3 × 60 = 180 seconds

Divide the distance by time:

velocity = 500 / 180 = 2.78 m/s

Let's try another example. You want to participate in a race with your brand-new car that can change its speed with an acceleration of about 6.95 m/s² . The competition just started. What will be your velocity after 4 seconds ?

Set initial velocity to zero; you're not moving at the beginning of the race.

Multiply the acceleration by time to obtain the velocity change:

velocity change = 6.95 × 4 = 27.8 m/s

Since the initial velocity was zero, the final velocity is equal to the change in speed.

You can convert units to km/h by multiplying the result by 3.6:

27.8 × 3.6 ≈ 100 km/h

You can, of course, make your calculations much easier by using the average velocity calculator. All you'll need to do is type in distance and time. One of the advantages of using this calculator is that you don't have to convert any units by hand . Our tool will do it all for you!

Velocity is present in many aspects of physics, and we have created many calculators about it! The first velocity is the so-called terminal velocity , which is the highest velocity attainable by a free-falling object. Terminal velocity occurs in fluids (e.g., air or water) and depends on the fluid's density.

Do you ever wonder what speed is necessary to leave a planet? This speed is called escape velocity and is defined as the smallest speed required for an object to escape the gravitational pull generated by a celestial body, such as a planet, a moon, or a star. Escape velocity is a concept of fundamental importance in astrophysics and in the context of space travel.

In the high energy region, there is another important velocity — relativistic velocity . It results from the fact that no object with a non-zero mass can reach the speed of light. Why? When it approaches light speed, its kinetic energy becomes unattainable, very large, or even infinite. Moreover, this is a cause of other phenomena like relativistic velocity addition, time dilation, and length contraction. Also, Albert Einstein's famous E = mc² formula is based on the relativistic velocity concept.

We hope we've convinced you that velocity plays an essential role in everyday life and not just science, and we hope that you've enjoyed our velocity calculator.

What is the airspeed velocity of an unladen swallow?

Well, that depends if you are talking about the European or African variety. For the European sort, it would seem to be roughly 11 m/s, or 24 mph . If it's our African avian acquaintance you’re after, well, I'm afraid you're out of luck; the jury's still out.

How do you find instantaneous velocity?

• Find an equation that describes how distance ( x ) changes with respect to time ( t ) .
• Differentiate the formula with respect to time.
• Let dx/dt = instantaneous velocity .
• Input the desired time into the differentiated formula. The result is the instantaneous speed at time t .

How long does it take to reach terminal velocity?

It will take the average human approximately 15 seconds to reach 99% of terminal velocity with their belly facing the Earth. Reaching 100% terminal velocity is very difficult, if not impossible, as acceleration drops exponentially as an object approaches its terminal velocity. This time will change if the person changes body position.

Can velocity be negative?

Yes, velocity can be negative . Velocity is directional speed, so if the object is moving opposite to the direction defined as the positive direction, it will be negative. Two objects with equal but opposite velocities have the same speed, but are just moving in opposite directions.

How do you find initial velocity?

To find the initial velocity:

Work out which of the displacement ( s ), final velocity ( v ), acceleration ( a ), and time ( t ) you have to solve for initial velocity (u).

If you have v , a , and t , use:

If you have s , v , and t , use:

u = 2(s/t) — v

If you have s , v , and a , use:

u = √(v² − 2as)

If you have s , a , and t , use:

u = (s/t) − (at/2)

How do you find final velocity?

To compute the final velocity:

Work out which of the displacement ( s ), initial velocity ( u ), acceleration ( a ), and time ( t ) you have to solve for the final velocity ( v ).

If you have u , a , and t , use:

If you have s , u , and t , use:

v = 2(s/t) − u

v = (s/t) + (at/2)

What is escape velocity?

Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object needs to escape another object's gravitational pull . The most common example of this is the speed a spacecraft requires to leave Earth for distant planets, which is approximately 11.2 km/s.

What is the difference between velocity and acceleration?

Velocity is the speed and direction with which an object is moving, while acceleration is how the speed of that object changes with time. The units for velocity are m/s, while for acceleration, they are m/s².

What causes a change in velocity?

Interactions with other objects cause velocity to change . When a moving object collides with another object in its path, it will slow down (if it collides with something smaller, e.g., an air particle) or stop (if it hits a wall). If an object expels matter behind it, it will speed up like a rocket. An object will also accelerate towards other objects via gravity .

How do I calculate escape velocity?

To calculate the escape velocity:

Find the object's mass in kilograms, m , and its radius in meters, r .

Multiply m by the gravitational constant (6.674 × 10 −11 ) and then by 2.

Divide the result of step 2 by r .

Raise the result of step 3 by 0.5. The result is the escape velocity.

Flat vs. round Earth

Helium balloons, mirror equation, power dissipation.

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The Time to Travel  calculator computes the time ( t ) required to travel a distance ( x ) at an average speed( v ).

INSTRUCTIONS: Choose units and enter the following:

• ( x )  Distance Traveled.
• ( v )  Average Speed.

Time of Travel (t):  The calculator returns the duration of the travel in minutes.  However, this can be automatically converted to other duration units (e.g. days, months) via the pull-down menu.

Related Calculators:

• Compute the time from the distance and velocity .
• Compute the velocity from the distance and time .
• Compute the distance from the velocity and time .

The Math / Science

The formula for the time required to travel a distance  is:

         t = x/v

• t is the time to travel the distance
• x is the distance traveled
• v is the constant velocity

Road Travel Calculators :

• Cost to Drive : Fuel costs based on distance traveled, miles per gallon of vehicle, and dollars per gallon for fuel.
• Gas Mileage Equation :  MPG based on two odometer readings and fuel consumed.
• Gas Mileage :   MPG based on miles traveled and fuel consumed.
• Mileage Expense :  Cost of travel based on mileage rate and distance traveled.
• Mileage Tax Deduction :  Expense allocation based on miles traveled and category of travel (see below).
• Time to Travel : Time driving based on average speed and distance.
• Time to Overtake :  Time to intercept based on distance between vehicles and average speed of both
• Compare US Dollars per Gallon vs Canadian Dollars per Liter prices
• Compute the Cost of a Road-Trip
• Euro Dollar Calculator combines unit conversions with currency conversions for the European Union and the United States . 
• Fuel per Mile :  This computes the fuel consumed per unit traveled (e.g., gallons per mile and liters per kilometer).
• Average Fuel Economy : This computes the miles per gallon or other fuel economy indicators (kilometers per liter) 
• Energy in Diesel
• Energy in Gasoline
• CO 2 from Burning an amount of Diesel Fuel
• Carbon Dioxide per Gallon Diesel
• Cost to Idle a Vehicle

Money and Travel

The US Mileage Rate for Business Travel  shows the dollars per mile deduction for business travel for the calendar year.  The most recently queried information from the IRS website on mileage includes:

Mileage Calendar Year : 2022 

• $62.5 USD/mi:  Mileage Deduction for Business Travel
• $22.0 USD/mi:  Mileage Deduction for Moving or Medical Travel  
• $14.0 USD/mi:  Mileage Deduction for Charitable Donation Travel  

Use these deductions rates in the Mileage Tax Deduction Calculator .  It computes tax deductions from miles travelled . Just enter the miles traveled and see the dollar amount associates for business, moving or medical, and charitable work.

Dollar per Gallon vs Other Currencies per Liter

International travel poses a several challenges, even if it's just over the boarder to Canada or Mexico.  First, there is the conversion from liters to gallons, which is fixed, and then there's the conversion between the US dollar and other currency, which is constantly changing.  vCalc is here to help.  We know how to do the math and we keep track of currency fluctuations, and the result makes it easier on you.  

Here are four examples, US dollar per gallon from

• Euros per Liter
• Canadian Dollars per Liter
• Great Britain Pounds per Liter
• Mexican Pesos per Liter

The formula to convert Euros per Liter to U.S. Dollars per Gallon is:

    `DPG = € EPL *   (3.7854 " Liters")/(1.0 " U.S. Gallons")  *  ($1.0 " USD")/( "€ 0.929 EUR")`

The formula to convert Canadian Dollars per Liter to U.S. Dollars per Gallon is:

    `DPG = Can$ CPL *   (3.7854 " Liters")/(1.0 " U.S. Gallons")  *  ($1.0 " USD")/( "$ 1.371 CAD")`

The formula to convert Great Britain Pounds (Sterling) per Liter to U.S. Dollars per Gallon is:

    `DPG = £ PPL *   (3.7854 " Liters")/(1.0 " U.S. Gallons")  *  ($1.0 " USD")/( "£ 0.799 GBP")`

The formula to convert Mexican Pesos per Liter to U.S. Dollars per Gallon is:

    `DPG = ? PPL *   (3.7854 " Liters")/(1.0 " U.S. Gallons")  *  ($1.0 " USD")/( "?16.916 MXN")`

• DPG = US Dollars per Gallon
• € EPL = Euros per Liter
• Can$ CPL = Canadian Dollars per Liter
• £ PPL = Pounds per Liter
• ? PPL = Pesos per Liter

Note the currency exchange rates are updated every two minutes.

Additional Fuel Price Conversions :

• US Dollars per Gallon from India Rupees per Liter
• US Dollars per Gallon from Japanese Yen per Liter
• US Dollars per Gallon from Chinese Yuan per Liter
• Fuel per Mile :  This computes the fuel consumed per unit traveled (e.g. gallons per mile).

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